Instructor: Sam Nanavaty

NOISE
Instructor: Sam Nanavaty
Noise is the UNDESIRABLE portion of an
electrical signal that interferes
with the intelligence

Instructor: Sam Nanavaty
Why is it important to study the effects of Noise?

a) Todays telecom networks handle enormous volume of data
b) The switching equipment needs to handle high traffic volumes as
well
c) our ability to recover the required data without error is inversely
proportional to the magnitude of noise

What steps are taken to minimize the effects of noise?

a) Special encoding and decoding techniques used to optimize the
recovery of the signal
b) Transmission medium is chosen based on the bandwidth, end to
end reliability requirements, anticipated surrounding noise levels
and the distance to destination
c) Elaborate error detection and correction mechanisms utilized in the
communications systems

Instructor: Sam Nanavaty
The decibel (abbreviated dB) is the unit used to measure
the intensity of a sound.! The smallest audible sound
(near total silence) is 0 dB. A sound 10 times more
powerful is 10 dB. A sound 1,000 times more powerful
than near total silence is 30 dB.

Here are some common sounds and their decibel ratings:

Normal conversation - 60 dB
A rock concert - 120 dB

It takes approximate 4 hours of exposure to a 120-dB
sound to cause damage to your ears, however 140-dB
sound can result in an immediate damage

Instructor: Sam Nanavaty
Relative power gain of a device can be expressed as

A
p
= P
o
/P
i
(Power levels are expressed in Watts)

Relative power gain of a device in decibels is

A
p(dB)
= 10 Log A
p
= 10 Log P
o
/P
i

Alternatively, the above equations can be represented as

A
p
(dB) = 10 Log (V
o
2
/R
o
)/(V
i
2
/R
i
)

If (R
o
= R
i
)

A
v
(dB) = 10 Log (V
o
/V
i
)
2
= 20 Log (Vo/Vi) = 20 Log Av


P
o
and P
i
can be substituted with P
fin
and P
init
as in
Final and initial values of power source

Instructor: Sam Nanavaty
Ap is a relative power gain

Ap is not necessarily the power gain between output and input

Ap can be computed for comparing any two different power levels

e.g., You may be asked to compute a relative power gain ratio of an
amplifier which has been redesigned so that the maximum output power
has increased from .25W and 5W

A
p
= 5/.25 = 20 and A
p(dB)
= 10 x Log A
p
= 10 x Log 20 = 13.01


If A
p(dB)
= 20 dB and P
o
= 550mW, compute P
i

Ap = 10
Ap(dB)/10
= 100

Po/Pi = 100
Pi = 550/100 = 5.5 mW

Instructor: Sam Nanavaty
A preamp has a voltage gain of 28dB. Compute the following:


a) If Vi = 2 mV then Vo = ?

A
v(dB)
= 20 Log A
v

Av = 10
Av(dB)/20
Av = 25.11


a) If Vi increases from 2 to 5 mV, how many dB has the signal increased?

Av(dB) = 20 Log (V
fin
/V
init
) = 20 Log (5/2) = 20 Log 2.5 = 7.95 dB

b) If Vi drops from 2 to 1 mV, how many dB has the signal dropped?

Av(dB) = 20 Log (V
fin
/V
init
) = 20 Log (1/2) = 20 Log .5 = -6 dB




Instructor: Sam Nanavaty
The absolute power gain is defined as A unit of gain or loss expressed
as an absolute value based on 1 mW of standard reference

Ap(dBm) = 10 Log (P/ 1 mW)

This represents an absolute Power gain based on a standard input level of
1 mW in to 50 , 600 or 900 depending on the impedance of the
Transmission media.

P represents Power level which can then be computed as follows:

P = 1 mW (10
(Ap(dBm)/10)
)

In terms of voltage, the above equation can then be represented as

(V
rms
2
/R) = 1 mW (10 (
Ap(dBm)/10
))


V
rms
= 1 mW (10 (Ap(dBm)/10)) x R (where R = standardized value
obtained from the manufacturer)

Instructor: Sam Nanavaty
1) If Signal level of 30 MHz test tone measures -30dBm on a spectrum
analyzer, Compute the power level P of signal.

P = 1mW x 10
Ap(dBm)/10
= 1 mW x 10
-30dBm/10
= 1 mW x 10
-3
= 1 uW


2) An rf sinewave generator with o/p impedance of 50 is connected to 50
Load using a 50 coaxial cable. The generators output amplitude level is set to
-12 dBm. An rms voltmeter is used to measure the effective voltage and an
oscilloscope is used to display the sine wave. Compute the following:
a) rms voltage measured by rms voltmeter
b) Peak voltage Vp of sine wave that should be displayed on the oscilloscope
c) Peak-to-peak voltage of sinewave that should be displayed on the oscilloscope

a) Vrms = 1mW x 10
Ap(dBm)
x 50 = 56.17 mV
b) Vp = Vrms/.707 = 79.45 mV
c) Vp-p = 2x Vp = 158.9 mV
Instructor: Sam Nanavaty
Signal to Noise ratio: It is a ratio of signal power to
Noise power at some point in a Telecom system
expressed in decibels (dB)

It is typically measured at the receiving end of the
communications system BEFORE the detection of
signal.

SNR = 10 Log (Signal power/ Noise power) dB

SNR = 10 Log (V
s
/V
N
)
2
= 20 Log (V
s
/V
N
)


Instructor: Sam Nanavaty
1) The noise power at the output of receivers IF stage is
measured at 45 W. With receiver tuned to test signal, output
power increases to 3.58 mW. Compute the SNR

SNR = 10 Log (Signal power/ Noise power) dB
= 10 Log (3.58 mW/ 45 W) = 19 dB

2) A 1 kHZ test tone measured with an oscilloscope at the input of
receivers FM detector stage. Its peak to peak voltage is 3V. With test tone
at transmitter turned off, the noise at same test point is measure with an
rms voltmeter. Its value is 640 mV. Compute SNR in dB.

SNR = 20 Log (Vs/Vn) = 20 Log ((.707 x Vp-p/2)/Vn)
= 20 Log (1.06V/640 mV)
= 4.39 dB
Instructor: Sam Nanavaty
Noise Factor (F) : It is a measure of How
Noisy A Device Is

Noise figure (NF) = Noise factor expressed
in dB
F = (Si/Ni) / (So/No)

NF = 10 Log F
Instructor: Sam Nanavaty
An input signal of repeater is made of 150 W of input power and 1.2 W
of Noise power. The repeater contributes an additional 48 W of noise
and has a power gain of 20 dB. Compute

a) Input SNR : 10 Log (150 W/ 1.2 W) = 125 = 20.97 dB

b) Power gain of 20 dB means Ap = 100 (why?)

c) So = Si x Ap = 150x100 = 15mW

d) Output noise = No = Ni x Ap + Nr = 1.2 W x 100 + 48 W = 168 W

e) So/No = 15 mW/168 W = 89.3
10 Log 89.3 = 19.5 dB

f) Noise factor = 10 log ((Si/Ni) / (So/No)) = 10 log (125/89.3) = 10 log 1.4
Noise factor = 1.46 dB

Instructor: Sam Nanavaty
Bit Error Rate: Number of bits that are
Corrupted or destroyed during transmission

E.g., BER of 10
-5
indicates that 1 bit out of every
100000 is destroyed during transmission.

The factors governing BER are:

B/W, SNR, transmission media, Environment surrounding
The media, Transmission distance and the transmitter and
Receiver performance
Instructor: Sam Nanavaty
Noise Types
Atmospheric and Extraterrestrial
noise
Gaussian Noise
Crosstalk
Impulse Noise
Instructor: Sam Nanavaty
Atmospheric and Extraterrestrial
Noise
Lightning: The static discharge generates
a wide range of frequencies
Solar Noise: Ionised gases of SUN
produce a wide range of frequencies as
well.
Cosmic Noise: Distant stars radiate
intense level of noise at frequencies that
penetrate the earths atmosphere.
Instructor: Sam Nanavaty
Gaussian Noise: The cumulative effect of all
random noise generated over a period of time (it
includes all frequencies).

Thermal Noise: generated by random motion of
free electrons and molecular vibrations in
resistive components. The power associated
with thermal noise is proportional to both
temperature and bandwidth

Pn = K x T x BW

K = Boltzmanns constant 1.38x10
-23
T = Absolute temperature of device
BW = Circuit bandwidth

Instructor: Sam Nanavaty
Shot Noise: Results from the random arrival rate of discrete
current carriers at
the output electrodes of semiconductor and vaccum tube
devices.

Noise current associated with shot noise can be computed as

I
n
= 2qIf

In = Shot noise current in rms
q = charge of an electron
I = DC current flowing through the device
f = system bandwidth (Hz)
Instructor: Sam Nanavaty
Crosstalk: electrical noise or interference caused by inductive
and capacitive coupling of signals from adjacent channels

In LANs, the crosstalk noise has greater effect on system
Performance than any other types of noise

Problem remedied by using UTP or STP. By twisting the cable
pairs together, the EMF surrounding the wires cancel out each
other.




Instructor: Sam Nanavaty
Near end crosstalk: Occurs at transmitting station when strong signals radiating
from transmitting pair of wires are coupled in to adjacent weak received signals
traveling in opposite direction.

Far end crosstalk: Occurs at the far end receiver as a result of adjacent signals
traveling in the same direction.
Instructor: Sam Nanavaty
Minimizing crosstalk in telecom systems

1) Using twisted pair of wires
2) Use of shielding to prevent signals from radiating in to other conductors
3) Transmitted and received signals over long distance are physically
separated
and shielded
4) Differential amplifiers and receivers are used to reject common-mode
signals
5) Balanced transformers are used with twisted pair media to cancel crosstalk
signals coupled equally in both lines
6) Maximum channels used within a cable are limited to a certain value
Instructor: Sam Nanavaty
Impulse Noise: Noise consisting of sudden bursts of
irregularly shaped pulses and lasting for a few
Microseconds to several hundred milliseconds.

What causes Impulse noise?

a) Electromechanical switching relays at the C.O.
b) Electrical motors and appliances, ignition systems
c) Lightning