Here, we shall discuss the effects produced by the
application of loads, on the materials. Before entering into the details of the effects, following few terms should be clearly understood.
LOAD: All the external forces acting on a body, combined together, constitute what is called the load.
Force due to dead weight or weight not in motion Inertia force: acting in the direction opposite to that of the accelerating or retarding force. Centrifugal force: due to rotation. Frictional force: due to the relative motion between the two mating parts Force due to expansion or contraction
INTRODUCTION STRESS STRAIN Linear relationship in ELASTIC REGION Nonlinear relationship in PLASTIC REGION Materials deform when subjected to load Average Normal Stress (assume uniform): The force (load) acts perpendicular to the area A P = o Units: N/m 2 or Pascal P = applied load (force), N A = cross-sectional area, m 2 The force (load) lies in the plane of the area (A) Single Shear:
Average Shearing Stress (assume uniform): A F A P ave = = t Units: N/m 2 (Pascal) P = applied load F = internal force A = area of action Bolted attachment
Glued joints (B) Double Shear: Bolted attachment
Glued joints A F A P A P ave = = = 2 2 / t Units: N/m 2 (Pascal) P = applied load F = internal force A = area of action Average Bearing Stress (cannot assume uniform): due to bearing contact surface td P A P b = = o Units: N/m 2 (Pascal) P = applied load d = bolt diameter t = plate thickness Factor of Safety = a method to specify the allowable load for the design or analysis of a member.
Ffail is found from experimental testing of the material F.S. is selected based on experience Fallow is less than the load a member can fully support Example: Bridge: You know Ffail and you specify F.S. then you specify Fallow for the bridge: cannot exceeds 10 cars on the bridge at a time
allow fail F F S F = . . Stress, Strain & Hooke's Law
In Diagram 1, the structure shown is composed of axial member AC which is pinned to the floor at point A, and cable BC which is pinned to the wall at point B. In addition, a load of 15,000 lb is attached to the structure at point C. If we solve for the forces acting on and in the structure we will find that at point A there is a support force of 14,180 lb. acting at 37 o (along the direction of the member); which is also the internal force in member AC, 14,180 lb (compression). At point B, the external support force of the wall on the cable has a value of 13,090 lb., acting at an angle of 150 o (from +x-axis) This is also the value of the internal tension in the cable, 13,090 lb. Now, we could ask the question; Is this structure safe? Are members BC and AC strong enough to support the load?
With respect to diagram 1, we recognize right away that knowing the force in the cable BC is not enough to tell us if the cable is safe or if it will break. Clearly it depends on several other factors in addition to the force in the cable. It depends on the size of the cable. A 1" diameter steel cable will carry more load than a " diameter steel cable. It also depends on what the cable is made of. A steel cable will clearly support more than an aluminum cable. To address the first consideration, we will turn to the concept of STRESS.
AXIAL STRESS
What is known as Axial (or Normal) Stress, often symbolized by the Greek letter sigma, is defined as the force perpendicular to the cross sectional area of the member divided by the cross sectional area. Oro = F / A = ib/in 2 or N/m 2 . In diagram 2, a solid rod of length L, is under simple tension due to force F, as shown. If we divide that axial force, F, by the cross sectional area of the rod (A), this quotient would be the axial stress in the member. Axial stress is the equivalent of pressure in a gas or liquid. As you remember, pressure is the force/unit area. So axial stress is really the 'pressure' in a solid member. Now the question becomes, how much 'pressure' can a material bear before it fails.
AXIAL STRESS Well, we will examine that question in some detail in a bit, but to give an example, a normal operating stress for carbon steel might be 30,000 lb/in 2 . Now let's return to our example shown in Diagram 1 (repeated in Diagram 3). In our structure , if we assume both the member and the cable are made of steel, and if the diameter of the cable is .5 inches, and if the cross sectional area of the member is 1.2 in 2 , are the stresses in the cable BC and in member AC within the 'allowable' stress for steel of 30,000 lb/in 2 ?
For the member AC: Axial Stress = F/A = 14,180 lb./ (1.2 in 2 ) = 11,820 lb/in 2
These are interesting results. We see from the calculations that the stress in member AC (11,820 lb/in 2 ) is well within the allowable stress of 30,000 lb/in 2 , however, we also see clearly that the stress in the cable BC (66,700 lb/in 2 ) is over twice the allowable stress of 30,000 lb/in 2 . This means that the inch diameter cable is much too small to support the load AXIAL STRESS Well, what size cable should we use? Another interesting question whose answer we find by simply reversing our process, using the stress equation to find the minimum size cable for the allowable stress of 30,000 lb/in 2 . That is, we set the stress value to the allowable stress of 30,000 lb/in 2 , put in the axial force in the cable, and solve for the cable area needed
AXIAL STRESS Axial Stress = F/A : 30,000 lb/in 2 = 13,090 lb./A; solving for A = .436 in 2 . Since the area of cable = 3.14 (r 2 ), we can solve for the radius r = square root (.436 in 2 /3.14) = .373 inches. So the minimum diameter steel cable which would safely support the load is d = .746 inches ( or inch diameter cable). This is an important process. We checked the members in the structure, found one was not safe according to the allowable stress for the material, and then calculated the size member needed so that the structure would be safe.
OBJECTIVE Show how STRESS can be related to STRAIN by using experimental methods Outcome: stress-strain diagram Show the relationship of stress and strain in ELASTIC REGION Outcome: Hookes Law Stress-Strain Diagram How stress can be related to strain by using experimental methods? 1. Perform tension and compression tests 2. Use tension and compression data to compute various values of stress and strain stress: strain:
3. Plot the results stress-strain diagram! = same unit as pressure (Nm -2 or Pa) F = applied load (force) A = cross-sectional area o = displacement L = original length A F = o L o e= Difference between Conventional vs. True There are 2 types of stress-strain diagram: 1. Conventional stress-strain diagram (always using original cross-sec area and original specimen length)
2. True stress-strain diagram (use actual cross-sec area and actual specimen length at the instant the load is measured compute true stress and true strain)
Elastic Behavior: Definition: if load is removed, the specimen can return to its original shape Elastic Behavior: Straight line: stress is proportional to strain (linearly elastic) Elastic Behavior: Small portion of bend-and- flatten-out: from proportional limit to elastic limit Yielding: Definition: above the elastic limit deform permanently (Plastic deformation) Yielding: Yield stress/ yield point: The stress that causes yielding Yielding: Even without any increase in the load (constant ), the specimen will continue to elongate (extent ). Strain Hardening: Definition: further load curve rises continuously but flatter (strain hardening) reaches a maximum stress (ultimate stress) From the start until ultimate stress: specimen elongates cross- sectional area decreases fairly uniform over the entire length Necking: From ultimate stress onwards: specimen elongates cross-sectional area decreases in a localized region of the specimen Ductile material = any material that can be subjected to large strains before it rupture. E.g. mild steel
Brittle material = material that exhibit little or no yielding before failure. E.g. gray cast iron Hookes Law (for normal stress vs. normal strain) e = E o E = Youngs modulus or modulus of elasticity E has Units: Pa or MPa or GPa = normal stress (F/A); has units Nm -2 or Pa etc. = normal strain; dimensionless Exhibit a linear relationship between stress and strain within the elastic region See examples 3.1, 3.2(a), 3.3 Hookes Law (for shear stress vs. shear strain) t G = G = shear modulus of elasticity G has Units: Pa or MPa or GPa t = shear stress (F/A); has units Nm -2 or Pa etc. _ = shear strain; measured in radian, dimensionless Exhibit a linear relationship between shear and strain within the elastic region See examples 3.5, 3.6(a) Poissons Ratio (subjected to axial tensile/compressive force) long lat e e = v L long o = e r lat ' o = e ) 1 ( 2 v E G + = long = strain in longitudinal or axial direction lat = strain in lateral or radial direction o = longitudinal displacement (change of bars length) o = lateral displacement (change of radius) -ve sign is used here because longitudinal elongation (+ve strain) causes lateral contraction (-ve strain) Three material constants are related by See examples 3.4, 3.6(b) Stress, Strain & Hooke's Law
In our first topic, Static Equilibrium, we examined structures in which we assumed the members were rigid - rigid in the sense that we assumed that the member did not deform due to the applied loads and resulting forces. In real members, of course, we have deformation. That is, the length (and other dimensions) change due to applied loads and forces. In fact, if we look at a metal rod in simple tension as shown in diagram 1, we see that there will be an elongation (or deformation) due to the tension.
Stress, Strain & Hooke's Law If we then graph the tension (force) verses the deformation we obtain a result as shown in diagram 2. In diagram 2, we see that, if our metal rod is tested by increasing the tension in the rod, the deformation increases. In the first region the deformation increases in proportion to the force. That is, if the amount of force is doubled, the amount of deformation is doubled. This is a form of Hooke's Law and could be written this way: F = k (deformation), where k is a constant depending on the material (and is sometimes called the spring constant). After enough force has been applied the material enters the plastic region - where the force and the deformation are not proportional, but rather a small amount of increase in force produces a large amount of deformation. In this region, the rod often begins to 'neck down', that is, the diameter becomes smaller as the rod is about to fail. Finally the rod actually breaks.
Stress, Strain & Hooke's Law (Contd) The point at which the Elastic Region ends is called the elastic limit, or the proportional limit. In actuality, these two points are not quite the same. The Elastic Limit is the point at which permanent deformation occurs, that is, after the elastic limit, if the force is taken off the sample, it will not return to its original size and shape, permanent deformation has occurred. The Proportional Limit is the point at which the deformation is no longer directly proportional to the applied force (Hooke's Law no longer holds). Although these two points are slightly different, we will treat them as the same in this course (Diagram 2)
Next, rather than examining the applied force and resulting deformation, we will instead graph the axial stress verses the axial strain (diagram 3).
We have defined the axial stress earlier. The axial strain is defined as the fractional change in length or Strain = (deformation of member) divided by the (original length of member) , Strain is often represented by the Greek symbol epsilon(c), and the deformation is often represented by the Greek symbol delta(o), so we may write: Strain c = o / L 0
(where L o is the original length of the member) Strain has no units - since its length divided by length, however it is sometimes expressed as 'in./in.' in some texts.
As we see from diagram 3, the Stress verses Strain graph has the same shape and regions as the force verses deformation graph in diagram 2. In the elastic (linear) region, since stress is directly proportional to strain, the ratio of stress/strain will be a constant (and actually equal to the slope of the linear portion of the graph). This constant is known as Young's Modulus, and is usually symbolized by an E or Y. We will use E for Young's modulus. We may now write Young's Modulus = Stress/Strain, or: E = o / c . (This is another form of Hooke's Law.)
The value of Young's modulus - which is a measure of the amount of force needed to produce a unit deformation - depends on the material. Young's Modulus for Steel is 30 x 10 6 lb/in 2 , for Aluminum E = 10 x 10 6 lb/in 2 , and for Brass E = 15 x 10 6 lb/in 2 . For more values, select: any text book
SUMMARY / CONCLUSION Show how STRESS can be related to STRAIN by using experimental methods Outcome: ? Show the relationship of stress and strain in ELASTIC REGION Outcome: ? Summary on Stress and Strains STRESS (o ) : Any material subjected to load may either deform, yield or break, depending upon the magnitude of the load, the nature of the material and its cross- sectional dimensions. Basically all externally applied loads deform an elastic material. This deformation is called Strain. While undergoing deformation, the body sets up internal resistance against deformation. This internal resisting force per unit area to deformation is called Stress. Mathematically, it can be defined as:
Where P = Load or force acting on the body and A = Cross-sectional area of the body. In S. I. System, the unit is pascal (Pa) or N / m 2 . In actual pratice we must use bigger units of stress I.e. megapascal (MPa) or gigapascal (Gpa) which is equal to N / mm 2 or kN / mm 2
Deformation means change of shape or dimensions
A P A R = = o STRAIN ( c ) Strain is a measure of the deformation produced in a member by the loads. This deformation per unit length of the member is known as Strain. Mathematically it can written as:
Where ol = change of length of body and l = Original length of body
ension Original ension in Change l l Strain dim dim ) ( = = o c Types of Stresses Tensile Stress: When equal and opposite forces, applied to a body, tend to elongate it, as shown in Fig, the body is said to be in tension and the stress so produced in it, is called the tensile stress. The corresponding strain is called tensile strain. As a result of the tensile stress, the cross-sectional area of the body gets reduced Initial body Elongation after applied force p p Compressive Stress When a section is subjected to two equal and opposite pushes and the body tends to shorten its length as shown in Fig, the stress induced is called compressive stress and the corresponding strain is called compressive strain. As a result of the compressive stress, the cross-sectional area of the body gets increased. p p Initial body Deformation of a Body Due to its Self Weight Consider a bar AB hanging freely under its own weight as shown in Fig. Let l = Length of the bar, A = Cross-sectional area of the bar, E = Youngs modulus for the bar material and w = Specific weight of the bar material. Consider a small section dx of the bar at a distance x from B. Weight of the bar for a length of x P = wAx Elongation of the small section of the bar, due to weight of the bar for a small section of length x, = P l / A E = (wAx). dx / AE = wx. dx/E Total elongation of the bar may be found out by integration the above equation between zero and l. Therefore total elongation,
W = wAl = total weight
l x dx A B AE Wl E dx wx l l 2 0 = = } o Deformation of a body due to force acting on it Consider a body subjected to a tensile stress. Let P is the load or force acting on the body, l is the length of the body, A is the cross-sectional area of the body, o is the stress induced in the body, E is the modulus of elasticity for the material of the body, c is the strain and ol is the deformation of the body. Then
E A l P E l l l = = = o c o Example-1 Problem: A hollow cylinder 2 m long has an outside diameter of 50 mm and inside diameter of 30 mm. If the cylinder is carrying a load of 25 kN, find the stress in the cylinder. Also find the deformation of the cylinder, if the value of modulus of elasticity for the cylinder material is 100GPa. Solution: Given : Length (l) = 2 m = 2 x 10 3 mm; Outside diameter (D) = 50 mm; Inside diameter (d) = 30 mm; Load (P) = 25 kN = 25 x 10 3 N and modulus of elasticity (E) = 100 Gpa = 100 x 10 3 N / mm 2 . Stress in the cylinder We know the cross-sectional area of the hollow cylinder, A = H / 4 X (D 2
d 2 ) = H / 4 X [ (50) 2 (30) 2 ] = 1257 mm 2 . Therefore stress in the cylinder, o = P / A = 25 x 10 3 / 1257 = 19.9 N/mm 2 = 19.9 Mpa Ans. Deformation of the cylinder o L = P. l / A. E = (25 x 10 3 ) x (2 x 10 3 ) / 1257 x (100 x 10 3 ) = 0.4 Ans.
Example-2 Problem: A load of 5 kN is to be raised with the help of a steel wire. Find the minimum diameter of the steel wire, if the stress is not to exceed 100 Mpa Solution: Given: Load (P) = 5 kN = 5 x 10 3 N and Stress (o ) = 100 Mpa = 100 N / mm 2 . Let d = Diameter of the wire in mm. We know that stress in the steel wire (o ), 100 = P / A = 5 x 10 3 / t /4 x (d) 2
d 2 = 6.366 x 10 3 / 100 = 63.66 or d = 7.98 say 8 mm Ans. Example-3 Problem: A copper alloy wire of 1.5 mm diameter and 30 m long is hanging freely from a tower. What will be its elongation due to self weight? Take specific weight of the copper and its modulus of elasticity as 89.2 kN / m 3 and 90 Gpa respectively. Solution: Given: Diameter (d) = 1.5 mm; Length (l) = 30 m = 30 x 10 3 mm; Specific weight (w) = 89.2 kN / m 3 = 89.2 x 10 -6
N / mm 3 and modulus of elasticity (E) = 90 Gpa = 90 x 10 3 N /mm 2
We know that cross-sectional area of the wire A = H / 4 x (d) 2
= t / 4 (1.5) 2 = 1.77 mm 2 and elongation of the wire due to self weight ol = w l 2 / 2AE = (89.2 x 10 -6 ) x (30x 10 3 ) 2 / 2 x 1.77 x (90 x 10 3 ) = 0.25 mm Ans. Principle of Superposition Sometimes, a body is subjected to a member of forces acting on its outer edges as well as at some other sections, along the length of the body. In such case, the forces are split up and their effects are considered on individual sections. The resulting deformation, of the body, is equal to the algebraic sum of the deformations of the individual sections. Such a principle, of finding out the resultant deformation, is called the principle of superposition. The relation for the resulting deformation may be modified as:
Where P 1 = Force acting on section 1, l 1 = Length of section 1, P 2 l 2
= corresponding values of section 2 and so on. ) ( 1 3 3 2 2 1 1 + + + = = l P l P l P E A E A l P l o Example A steel bar of cross- sectional area 200 mm 2 is loaded as shown in right Fig. Find the change in length of the bar. Take E as 200 Gpa. Solution: Given: Cross- sectional area (A) = 200 mm 2 and modulus of elasticity (E) = 200 Gpa = 200 x 10 3 N / mm 2
30 kN 50 kN 20 kN 300mm 500mm B C A Contd Example For the sake of simplification, the force of 50 kN acting at A may be split up into two forces of 20 kN and 30 kN respectively. Now it will be seen that part AB of the bar is subjected to a tension of 20 kN and AC is subjected to a tension of 30 kN as shown in the right side Fig. We know that the change in length of the bar
= 0.75 mm Ans. 20 kN 20 kN A B 30 kN 30 kN A C mm l )] 800 ( ) 10 30 ( )] 300 ( ) 10 20 [( 10 200 200 1 3 3 3 +