EET1035C Chapter 8 No Quiz

Introduction to Alternating Current and Voltage
Chapter 8
Thomas L. Floyd
David M. Buchla
DC/AC Fundamentals: A Systems
Approach
DC/AC Fundamentals: A Systems Approach
Thomas L. Floyd
2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All Rights Reserved
Homework
Page 372: Problems 2 & 4
Page 373: Problems 6, 8, 10, & 16
Page 374: Problems 24 & 26
Page 375: Problems 34, 36, 40 & 42
Due Thursday

Thomas L. Floyd
AC in Conductors
AC
Thomas L. Floyd
The sinusoidal waveform, or sine wave, is the
fundamental alternating current (ac) and voltage
waveform.
Electrical sine waves
are named from the
mathematical
function with the
same shape.
Ch.8 Summary
Sine Waves
Thomas L. Floyd
A wave is a disturbance that is somewhat analogous to
the wave that is created when a rock is dropped into a
pond. Despite their similarities, however, electrical waves
cannot be seen directly.
Ch.8 Summary
Waves
All periodic waves can be constructed from sine
waves, which is why sine waves are fundamental.
Thomas L. Floyd
Sine waves are characterized by the amplitude and
period. The amplitude is the maximum value of a
voltage or current; the period is the time interval for
one complete cycle.
The amplitude
(A) of this sine
wave is 20 V
The period is 50.0 us
Ch.8 Summary
Sine Waves
0 V
10 V
-10 V
15 V
-15 V
-2 0 V
0 25 37.5 50.0
20 V
5 V
5 V
12.5
t (ms)
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
Period (time)
Thomas L. Floyd
The period of a sine wave can be measured between
any two corresponding points on the waveform.
T T T
T T
By contrast, the amplitude of a sine wave is only
measured from the center to the maximum point.
Ch.8 Summary
Sine Waves
A
Thomas L. Floyd
Frequency ( f ) is the number of cycles that a sine
wave completes in one second.
Frequency is measured in hertz (Hz).
If 3 cycles of a wave
occur in one second
(as shown), the
frequency is 3 Hz.
Ch.8 Summary
Frequency
1 second (s)
Thomas L. Floyd
The period and frequency are reciprocals of each other.
Thus, if you know one, you can easily find the other.
Example: If the period is of a sine wave
is 50 ms, the frequency is
20 Hz
Ch.8 Summary
Period and Frequency
and
T
f
1
f
T
1

Thomas L. Floyd
Sinusoidal voltages are produced by ac generators and
electronic oscillators.
N
S
Motion of conductor
Conductor
B
C
D
A
A
B
C
D
A
B
B
C
D
A
C
B
C
D
A
D
When a conductor rotates in a constant
magnetic field, a sinusoidal wave is generated.
When the conductor is moving parallel
with the lines of flux, no voltage is
induced.
When the loop is moving perpendicular to the lines
of flux, the maximum voltage is induced.
B
C
D
A
Ch.8 Summary
Generation of a Sine Wave
Thomas L. Floyd
Generators convert rotational energy to electrical energy. A
stationary field alternator with a rotating armature is shown. The
armature has an induced voltage, which is connected through slip
rings and brushes to a load. The armature loops are wound on a
magnetic core (not shown for simplicity).
N
S
slip rings
armature
brushes
Small alternators may
use a permanent
magnet as shown here;
other use field coils to
produce the magnetic
flux.
Ch.8 Summary
AC Generator (Alternator)
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By increasing the number of poles, the number of cycles per
revolution is increased. A four-pole generator produces two
complete cycles in each revolution.
Ch.8 Summary
AC Generator (Alternator)
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Function selection
Frequency
Output level (amplitude)
DC offset
CMOS output
Range
Adjust
Duty cycle
Typical controls:
Outputs
Readout
Ch.8 Summary
Function Generators
Sine Square Triangle Sine Square Triangle
Courtesy of B+K Precision
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There are several ways to specify the voltage of a
sinusoidal voltage waveform. The amplitude of a sine
wave is also called the peak value, abbreviated as V
P

for a voltage waveform.
The peak voltage of
this waveform is 20 V
Ch.8 Summary
Sine Wave Voltage and Current Values
0 V
10 V
-10 V
15 V
-15 V
-20 V
t (ms)
0 25 37.5 50.0
20 V
V
P
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The voltage of a sine wave can also be specified as
either the peak-to-peak or the rms value. The peak-to-
peak is twice the peak value. The rms value is 0.707
times the peak value.
The peak-to-peak
voltage is
40 V
The rms
voltage is 14.1 V
Ch.8 Summary
0 V
10 V
-10 V
15 V
-15 V
-20 V
t (ms)
0 25 37.5 50.0
20 V
V
rms
V
PP
Thomas L. Floyd
For some purposes, the average value (actually the
half-wave average) is used to specify the voltage or
current. By definition, the average value is as 0.637
times the peak value.
The average value
for the sinusoidal
voltage is
12.7 V
Ch.8 Summary
0 V
10 V
-10 V
15 V
-15 V
-20 V
t (ms)
0 25 37.5 50.0
20 V
V
ave
Thomas L. Floyd
Angular measurements can be made in degrees (
o
) or
radians. The radian (rad) is the angle that is formed when the
arc is equal to the radius of a circle. There are 360
o
or 2p
radians in one complete revolution.
Ch.8 Summary
Angular Measurement
R
R
1 rad
1.0
-1.0
0.8
-0.8
0.6
-0.6
0.4
-0.4
0.2
-0.2
0
0 2p
p p
2
p
4
p
4
3 p
2
3 p
4
5 p
4
7
Thomas L. Floyd
There are 2p radians in one complete revolution and 360
o
in
one revolution. To find the number of radians, given the
number of degrees:
To find the number of degrees,
given the number of radians:
This can be simplified to:
Ch.8 Summary
Angular Measurement
degrees
360
rad 2
rad
degrees
180
rad
rad
rad
rad
180
deg
p


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How Many Degrees in a Radian

deg = 180/ x 1 rad = 57.29 degrees
rad
rad
180
deg
p


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How many radians are in 45
o
?
How many degrees are in 1.2 radians?
Ch.8 Summary
Angular Measurement
rad 0.785 45
180
rad

degrees
180
rad
rad

69 rad 1.2
rad
180
rad
rad
180
deg
Thomas L. Floyd
Instantaneous values of a wave are shown as v or i.
The equation for the instantaneous voltage (v) of a
sine wave is
where
If the peak voltage of a sine wave is 25 V, the
instantaneous voltage at 50 degrees is
V
P
=
q
Peak voltage
Angle in rad or degrees
19.2 V
Ch.8 Summary
Sine Wave Equation
q sin
P
V v
Thomas L. Floyd
A plot of the example in the previous slide (peak at 25 V) is
shown below. The instantaneous voltage at 50
o
is 19.2 V as
previously calculated. v = 25 Sin 50 = 19.2 V
Ch.8 Summary
Sine Wave Equation
v = =19.2 V V
p
sin
V
p
90
50 0
= 50
V
p
V
p
= 25 V
Thomas L. Floyd
0
0
90
90
180
180
360
The sine wave can be represented as the projection
of a vector rotating at a constant rate. This rotating
vector is called a phasor. Phasors are useful for
showing the phase relationships in ac circuits.
Ch.8 Summary
Phasors
Thomas L. Floyd
where
f Phase shift
The phase of a sine wave is an angular measurement that
specifies the position of a sine wave relative to a reference.
To show that a sine wave is shifted to the left or right of this
reference, a term is added to the instantaneous voltage
equation:
Ch.8 Summary
Phase Shift
) sin( f
P
V v
Thomas L. Floyd
V
o
l
t
a
g
e

(
V
)
270 360 0 90 180
40
45 135 225 315
0
Angle ()
30
20
10
-20
-30
- 40
405
Peak voltage
Reference
Example of a wave that lags a reference wave:
v = 30 V sin (q - 45
o
)
and the equation
has a negative phase
shift
Ch.8 Summary
Phase Shift
Notice that a lagging sine wave
is below the axis at 0
o
Thomas L. Floyd
V
o
l
t
a
g
e

(
V
)
270 360 0 90 180
40
45 135 225 315
0
Angle ()
30
20
10
-20
-30
-40
Peak voltage
Reference
-45
-10
Notice that a leading sine
wave is above the axis at 0
o
Example of a wave that leads the reference wave
v = 30 V sin (q + 45
o
)
and the equation
has a positive phase
shift
Ch.8 Summary
Phase Shift
Thomas L. Floyd
An important application of phase-shifted sine waves is in
electrical power systems. Electrical utilities generate AC
with three phases that are separated by 120 as illustrated.
120
o
Normally, 3-phase
power is delivered to
the user with three hot
lines plus neutral. The
voltage of each phase,
with respect to neutral is
120 V.
120
o
120
o
Ch.8 Summary
Phase Shift
Thomas L. Floyd
Bulb
ac or dc
source
0 V
170 V
P
@ 120 V
rms
0 V
120 V
dc
+
-
The power relationships developed for DC circuits apply to AC
circuits except you must use rms values in AC circuits when
calculating power.
For example, the DC and the AC sources deliver the same
amount of power to the bulb:
Ch.8 Summary
Power in Resistive AC Circuits
R I P
R
V
P
I V P
rms
rms
rms rms

2
2
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Assume a sine wave with a peak value of 40 V is applied
to a 100 W resistive load. What power is dissipated?
40
0
30
20
10
-20
-30
- 40
V
o
l
t
a
g
e

(
V
)
V 28.3 V 40 0.707 707 . 0
P rms
V V
Ch.8 Summary
Power in Resistive AC Circuits
W 8
100
V) (28.3
2

R
V
P
2
rms
Thomas L. Floyd
Waveforms frequently contain both dc and ac voltages. They
can be added algebraically, to produce a composite waveform
of an ac voltage riding on a dc level.
Ch.8 Summary
Superimposed DC and AC Voltages
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Alternators are AC generators. Utility companies use 3-phase
alternators and deliver all three phases to industrial customers. A
simplified 3-phase alternator is represented here.
Ch.8 Summary
Alternators
N
S
Phase 1
Neutral
Phase 2
Phase 3
Thomas L. Floyd
In vehicles, alternators generate AC, which is converted to
DC for operating electrical devices and charging the battery.
AC is more efficient to produce and can be easily regulated,
hence it is generated and converted to DC by diodes.
The output is taken
from the rotor through
the slip rings.
Ch.8 Summary
Alternators
Diode plate
Rotor
Stator coils
Housing
Slip rings
Diodes
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There are two major classifications of AC motors.
These are the induction motor and the synchronous
motor. Both types use a rotating field in the stator
windings.
Rotor current in an induction motor is induced by the
changing current in the stator. This current creates a
magnetic field that reacts with the moving field of the
stator, which develops a torque and causes the rotor
to turn.
Ch.8 Summary
Induction AC Motors
Thomas L. Floyd
There are two major classifications of AC motors.
These are the induction motor and the synchronous
motor. Both types use a rotating field in the stator
windings.
Synchronous motors have a magnet for a rotor. In small
motors, this can be a permanent magnet, which keeps up
with the rotating field of the stator. Large motors use an
electromagnet in the rotor, with external DC supplied to
generate the magnetic field.
Ch.8 Summary
Synchronous AC Motors
Thomas L. Floyd
Ideal pulses
Ch.8 Summary
Pulse Definitions
Amplitude
Baseline
Amplitude
Baseline
(a) Positive-going pulse (b) Negative-going pulse
Leading (rising) edge
Trailing (falling) edge
Leading (falling) edge
Trailing (rising) edge
Pulse
width
Pulse
width
Thomas L. Floyd
Non-ideal pulses
Notice that rise and fall times are measured between the
0.1A (10%) and 0.9 A (90%) levels; whereas pulse width
is measured at the 0.5A (50%) level.
Ch.8 Summary
Pulse Definitions
A
0.9 A
0.1A
t
r
t
t
f
W
t t
0.5 A
A
(a) (b) Rise and fall times Pulse width
Thomas L. Floyd
Triangular and sawtooth waveforms are formed by
voltage or current ramps (linear
increase/decrease)
Triangular waveforms have
positive-going and negative-
going ramps of equal
duration.
The sawtooth waveform
consists of two ramps, one of
much longer duration than the
other.
Ch.8 Summary
Triangular and Sawtooth Waves
Thomas L. Floyd
All repetitive non-sinusoidal waveforms are composed
of a fundamental frequency (repetition rate of the
waveform) and harmonic frequencies.
Odd-order harmonics are frequencies that are
odd multiples of the fundamental frequency.
Even-order harmonics are frequencies that are
even multiples of the fundamental frequency.
Ch.8 Summary
Harmonics
Thomas L. Floyd
A square wave is composed only of the fundamental frequency
and odd harmonics (of the proper amplitude).
Ch.8 Summary
Harmonics
Thomas L. Floyd
The oscilloscope is divided into
four main sections.
Ch.8 Summary
Oscilloscopes
Ch 1
Signal coupling
AC
DC GND
Amp
Ch 2
AC
DC GND
Amp
Volts/Div
Vertical
position
AC
DC
Ext
Trigger
source
External trigger
coupling
Ch 1
Ch 2
Line
T
Time base
Sec/Div
Intensity
AC
DC to all sections
Power supply
Vertical section
Display section
Trigger section
Digital
only
Conversion/storage
(Digital scopes only)
Conversion/storage
Analog
only
Conversion/storage
Horizontal
position
rigger
level and
slope
Trigger
circuits
External
trigger
Horizontal section
Ch 1
Conversion/storage
Signal coupling
AC
DC GND
Amp
Ch 2
Conversion/storage
AC
DC GND
Amp
Volts/Div
Vertical
position
Vertical section
External
trigger
AC
DC
Ext
Trigger
coupling
Ch 1
Ch 2
Line
circuits
AC
Trigger section
Trigger
source
External trigger
v
slope
Trigger
le el and
From horizontal section
Intensity
Display section
Analog
only
From
vertical
section
Time base
Sec/Div
Horizontal
position
To display section
Digital
only
Horizontal
section
Control and process
Thomas L. Floyd
HORIZONTAL VERTICAL TRIGGER
5 s 5 ns
POSITION
CH1 CH2 EXT TRIG
AC-DC-GND
5 V 2 mV
VOLTS/DIV
COUPLING
CH1 CH 2 BOTH
POSITION
AC-DC-GND
5 V 2 mV
VOLTS/DIV
COUPLING
SEC/DIV
POSITION
SLOPE
+
LEVEL
SOURCE
CH1
CH2
EXT
LINE
TRIG COUP
DC AC
DISPLAY
INTENSITY
PROBECOMP
5 V
5 s 5 ns
POSITION
CH1 CH2 EXT TRIG
AC-DC-GND
5 V 2 mV
VOLTS/DIV
COUPLING
CH1 CH 2 BOTH
POSITION
AC-DC-GND
5 V 2 mV
VOLTS/DIV
COUPLING
SEC/DIV
POSITION
SLOPE
+
LEVEL
SOURCE
CH1
CH2
EXT
LINE
TRIG COUP
DC AC
DISPLAY
INTENSITY
PROBECOMP
5 V
Vertical
5 s 5 ns
POSITION
CH1 CH2 EXT TRIG
AC-DC-GND
5 V 2 mV
VOLTS/DIV
COUPLING
CH1 CH 2 BOTH
POSITION
AC-DC-GND
5 V 2 mV
VOLTS/DIV
COUPLING
SEC/DIV
POSITION
SLOPE
+
LEVEL
SOURCE
CH1
CH2
EXT
LINE
TRIG COUP
DC AC
DISPLAY
INTENSITY
PROBECOMP
5 V
Horizontal
5 s 5 ns
POSITION
CH1 CH2 EXT TRIG
AC-DC-GND
5 V 2 mV
VOLTS/DIV
COUPLING
CH1 CH 2 BOTH
POSITION
AC-DC-GND
5 V 2 mV
VOLTS/DIV
COUPLING
SEC/DIV
POSITION
SLOPE
+
LEVEL
SOURCE
CH1
CH2
EXT
LINE
TRIG COUP
DC AC
DISPLAY
INTENSITY
PROBECOMP
5 V
Trigger
5 s 5 ns
POSITION
CH1 CH2 EXT TRIG
AC-DC-GND
5 V 2 mV
VOLTS/DIV
COUPLING
CH1 CH 2 BOTH
POSITION
AC-DC-GND
5 V 2 mV
VOLTS/DIV
COUPLING
SEC/DIV
POSITION
SLOPE
+
LEVEL
SOURCE
CH1
CH2
EXT
LINE
TRIG COUP
DC AC
DISPLAY
INTENSITY
PROBECOMP
5 V
Display
Ch.8 Summary
Oscilloscopes
Thomas L. Floyd
Current that reverses direction in response to
a change in source voltage polarity.
The time interval for one complete cycle of a
periodic waveform.
A waveform that follows a cyclic sinusoidal
pattern defined by the formula y = A sin q.
A measure of the rate of change of a periodic
function; the number of cycles completed in 1 s.
The unit of measure for frequency. One hertz
equals one cycle per second.
Ch.8 Summary
Key Terms
Sine wave
Alternating
current (AC)
Period (T)
Frequency (f)
Hertz
Thomas L. Floyd
Ch.8 Summary
Key Terms
The voltage or current value of a waveform at
its maximum positive or negative points.
The voltage or current value of a waveform
measured from its minimum to its maximum
points.
The voltage or current value of a waveform at
a given instant in time.
The value of a sinusoidal voltage that
indicates its heating effect, equal to 0.707
times the peak value. RMS stands for root-
mean-square.
Instantaneous
value
Peak value
Peak-to-peak
value
RMS value
Thomas L. Floyd
The maximum value of a voltage or current.
A type of waveform that consists of two equal and
opposite steps in voltage or current separated by a time
interval.
The angle that is formed when the arc is equal to the
radius of a circle. 2p radians equals 360
.
The frequencies contained in a composite waveform,
which are integer multiples of the pulse repetition
frequency.
The relative angular displacement of a time-varying
waveform in terms of its occurrence with respect to a
reference.
Ch.8 Summary
Key Terms
Radian
Phase
Amplitude
Pulse
Harmonics

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Introduction to Alternating Current and Voltage

DC/AC Fundamentals: A Systems Approach

DC/AC Fundamentals: A Systems Approach

DC/AC Fundamentals: A Systems Approach

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