Properties and Characteristics of Materials

Thermal Properties

Magnetic Properties

Optical Properties

Electrical Properties
Thermal Properties

Why Study the Thermal Properties of
Materials?


Of the three primary material types, ceramics are
the most susceptible to thermal shockbrittle fracture
resulting from internal stresses that are established within
a ceramic piece as a result of rapid changes in
temperature (normally upon cooling). Thermal shock is
normally an undesirable event, and the susceptibility of a
ceramic material to this phenomenon is a function of its
thermal and mechanical properties (coefficient of thermal
expansion, thermal conductivity, modulus of elasticity, and
fracture strength).
Introduction


Thermal property refers to the response of a
material to the application of heat. As a solid absorbs
energy in the form of heat, its temperature rises and its
dimensions increase. The energy may be transported to
cooler regions of the specimen if temperature gradients
exist, and, ultimately, the specimen may melt. Heat
capacity, thermal expansion, and thermal conductivity are
properties that are often critical in the practical use of
solids.
Heat Capacity


A solid material, when heated, experiences an
increase in temperature, signifying that some energy has
been absorbed. Heat capacity indicates a materials ability
to absorb heat from the external surroundings; it
represents the amount of energy required to produce a
unit temperature rise
Definition of heat capacityratio of energy change
(energy gained or lost) and the resulting temperature
change.
Heat capacity represents the quantity of heat required
to produce a unit rise in temperature for 1 mole of a
substance; on a per-unit-mass basis, it is termed
specific heat.
Most of the energy assimilated by many solid materials
is associated with increasing the vibrational energy of
the atoms.
Only specific vibrational energy values are allowed (the
energy is said to be quantized); a single quantum of
vibrational energy is called a phonon.
Thermal Expansion

Solid materials expand when heated and contract
when cooled. The fractional change in length is
proportional to the temperature change, the constant
of proportionality being the coefficient of thermal
expansion.
Thermal expansion is reflected by an increase in the
average interatomic separation, which is a
consequence of the asymmetric nature of the potential
energyversus- interatomic spacing curve trough.
The larger the interatomic bonding energy, the lower is
the coefficient of thermal expansion.
Values of coefficient of thermal expansion for polymers
are typically greater than those for metals, which in turn
are greater than those for ceramic materials.
Thermal Conductivity

The transport of thermal energy from high to low
temperature regions of a material is termed thermal
conduction.
For solid materials, heat is transported by free
electrons and by vibrational lattice waves, or phonons.
The high thermal conductivities for relatively pure
metals are due to the large numbers of free electrons
and the efficiency with which these electrons transport
thermal energy. By way of contrast, ceramics and
polymers are poor thermal conductors because free-
electron concentrations are low and phonon
conduction predominates.
Thermal Stresses
Thermal stresses are stresses induced in a body as
a result of changes in temperature. An understanding of
the origins and nature of thermal stresses is important
because these stresses can lead to fracture or
undesirable plastic deformation.
The capacity of a material to withstand this kind of
failure is termed its thermal shock resistance. For a
ceramic body that is rapidly cooled, the resistance to
thermal shock depends not only on the magnitude of the
temperature change, but also on the mechanical and
thermal properties of the material. The thermal shock
resistance is best for ceramics that have high fracture
strengths and high thermal conductivities, as well as low
moduli of elasticity and low coefficients of thermal
expansion.
Formulas
Materials of Importance
One type of thermostat - a device that is used to
regulate temperature uses the phenomenon of
thermal expansion - the elongation of a material as it is
heated. The heart of this type of thermostat is a
bimetallic strip - strips of two metals having different
coefficients of thermal expansion are bonded along
their lengths.
A change in temperature causes this strip to
bend; upon heating, the metal having the greater
expansion coefficient elongates more, producing the
direction of bending shown in the figure.
Some Applications that Require
Dimensional Stability with Temperature
Fluctuations
Compensating pendulums and balance wheels for
mechanical clocks and watches.
Structural components in optical and laser measuring
systems that require dimensional stabilities on the order of
a wavelength of light.
Bimetallic strips that are used to actuate microswitches
in water heating systems.
Shadow masks on cathode-ray tubes that are used for
television and display screens; higher contrast, improved
brightness, and sharper definition are possible using low-
expansion materials.
Vessels and piping for the storage and piping of liquefied
natural gas.
Magnetic Properties

Why Study the Magnetic Properties of
Materials?


An understanding of the mechanism that explains
the permanent magnetic behavior of some materials may
allow us to alter and in some cases tailor the magnetic
properties.
Introduction


Magnetism - the phenomenon by which materials
exert an attractive or repulsive force or influence on other
materials - has been known for thousands of years.
However, the underlying principles and mechanisms that
explain magnetic phenomena are complex and subtle,
and their understanding has eluded scientists until
relatively recent times.
Many modern technological devices rely on
magnetism and magnetic materials; these include
electrical power generators and transformers, electric
motors, radio, television, telephones, computers, and
components of sound and video reproduction systems.
Basic Concepts

Magnetic Dipoles
Magnetic forces are generated by moving
electrically charged particles; these magnetic forces
are in addition to any electrostatic forces that may
exist. Often it is convenient to think of magnetic forces
in terms of fields. Imaginary lines of force may be
drawn to indicate the direction of the force at positions
in the vicinity of the field source.
Magnetic Field Vectors
The externally applied magnetic field, sometimes
called the magnetic field strength.
The magnetic induction, or magnetic flux density,
represents the magnitude of the internal field strength
within a substance that is subjected to a magnetic
field.
The permeability, is a property of the specific
medium through which the magnetic field passes and
in which magnetic induction is measured.
Magnetic flux density - as a function of magnetic
field strength and magnetization of a material.
Magnetization of a material - dependence on
susceptibility and magnetic field strength.
Diamagnetism
Diamagnetism is a very weak form of magnetism
that is nonpermanent and persists only while an external
field is being applied. It is induced by a change in the
orbital motion of electrons due to an applied magnetic
field. The magnitude of the induced magnetic moment is
extremely small and in a direction opposite to that of the
applied field.
Paramagnetism
For some solid materials, each atom possesses a
permanent dipole moment by virtue of incomplete
cancellation of electron spin and/or orbital magnetic
moments. In the absence of an external magnetic field,
the orientations of these atomic magnetic moments are
random, such that a piece of material possesses no net
macroscopic magnetization.
These atomic dipoles are free to rotate, and
paramagnetism results when they preferentially align, by
rotation, with an external field. These magnetic dipoles are
acted on individually with no mutual interaction between
adjacent dipoles.
Ferromagnetism
Certain metallic materials possess a permanent
magnetic moment in the absence of an external field and
manifest very large and permanent magnetizations. These
are the characteristics of ferromagnetism, and they are
displayed by the transition metals iron, cobalt, nickel, and
some rare earth metals such as gadolinium (Gd).
The maximum possible magnetization, or
saturation magnetization, of a ferromagnetic material
represents the magnetization that results when all the
magnetic dipoles in a solid piece are mutually aligned with
the external field; there is also a corresponding saturation
flux density.
Antiferromagnetism
Magnetic moment coupling between adjacent
atoms or ions also occurs in materials other than those
that are ferromagnetic. In one such group, this coupling
results in an antiparallel alignment; the alignment of the
spin moments of neighboring atoms or ions in exactly
opposite directions is termed antiferromagnetism.
Ferrimagnetism
Some ceramics also exhibit a permanent
magnetization, termed ferrimagnetism. The macroscopic
magnetic characteristics of ferromagnets and ferrimagnets
are similar; the distinction lies in the source of the net
magnetic moments
Formulas
Materials of Importance
Transformer cores require the use of soft
magnetic materials, which are easily magnetized and
demagnetized (and also have relatively high electrical
resistivities).
Optical Properties

Why Study the Optical Properties of
Materials?


When materials are exposed to electromagnetic
radiation, it is sometimes important to be able to predict
and alter their responses. This is possible when we are
familiar with their optical properties and understand the
mechanisms responsible for their optical behaviors.
Introduction


Optical property refers to a materials response to
exposure to electromagnetic radiation and, in particular, to
visible light. This chapter first discusses some of the basic
principles and concepts relating to the nature of
electromagnetic radiation and its possible interactions with
solid materials. Then it explores the optical behaviors of
metallic and nonmetallic materials in terms of their
absorption, reflection, and transmission characteristics.
Basic Concepts

Electromagnetic Radiation
In the classical sense, electromagnetic radiation is
considered to be wavelike, consisting of electric and
magnetic field components that are perpendicular to
each other and also to the direction of propagation.
Light, heat (or radiant energy), radar, radio waves, and
x-rays are all forms of electromagnetic radiation.
Sometimes it is more convenient to view
electromagnetic radiation from a quantum mechanical
perspective, in which the radiation, rather than
consisting of waves, is composed of groups or packets
of energy, which are called photons.

Light Interactions with Solids
Materials that are capable of transmitting light with
relatively little absorption and reflection are called
transparent - one can see through them.
Translucent materials are those through which light
is transmitted diffusely; that is, light is scattered within
the interior to the degree that objects are not clearly
distinguishable when viewed through a specimen of
the material.
Materials that are impervious to the transmission of
visible light are termed opaque.
Optical Properties of Nonmetals

Refraction
Light that is transmitted into the interior of
transparent materials experiences a decrease in
velocity and, as a result, is bent at the interface;
this phenomenon is termed refraction. The index
of refraction of a material is defined as the ratio of
the velocity in a vacuum to the velocity in the
medium
Reflection

When light passes from one transparent medium to
another having a different index of refraction, some of it
is reflected at the interface.
When light radiation passes from one medium into
another having a different index of refraction, some of
the light is scattered at the interface between the two
media even if both are transparent.
Absorption

Pure nonmetallic materials are either intrinsically
transparent or opaque.
Some light absorption occurs in even transparent
materials as a consequence of electronic polarization.

Color

Transparent materials appear colored as a
consequence of specific wavelength ranges of light
that are selectively absorbed.
The color discerned is a result of the distribution of
wavelength ranges in the transmitted beam.
Applications of Optical Phenomena

Luminescence
With luminescence, energy is absorbed as a
consequence of electron excitations, which is
subsequently reemitted as visible light. When light is
reemitted less than 1s after excitation, the phenomenon
is called fluorescence. For longer reemission times, the
term phosphorescence is used.
Electroluminescence is the phenomenon by which light
is emitted as a result of electronhole recombination
events that are induced in a forward-biased diode.
The device that experiences electroluminescence is the
light-emitting diode (LED).
Photoconductivity
Photoconductivity is the phenomenon by which the
electrical conductivity of some semiconductors may be
enhanced by photo-induced electron transitions, by
which additional free electrons and holes are
generated.

Lasers
Coherent and high-intensity light beams are
produced in lasers by stimulated electron
transitions.
Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of
Radiation
Optical Fibers in Communication
Use of fiber-optic technology in modern
telecommunications provides for the transmission of
information that is interference-free, rapid, and intense.
An optical fiber is composed of the following elements:
A core through which the pulses of light propagate.
The cladding, which provides for total internal
reflection and containment of the light beam within the
core.
The coating, which protects the core and cladding
from damage.
Formulas
Materials of Importance
The following schematic diagram illustrates the
operation of a photovoltaic solar cell. The cell is made
of polycrystalline silicon that has been fabricated to
form a pn junction. Photons that originate as light
from the sun excite electrons into the conduction band
on the n side of the junction and create holes on the p
side. These electrons and holes are drawn away from
the junction in opposite directions and become part of
an external current.
Electrical Properties

Why Study the Electrical Properties of
Materials?


Consideration of the electrical properties of
materials is often important when materials selection and
processing decisions are being made during the design of
a component or structure. For example, when we consider
an integrated circuit package, the electrical behaviors of
the various materials are diverse. Some need to be highly
electrically conductive (e.g., connecting wires), whereas
electrical insulativity is required of others (e.g., protective
package encapsulation).
Introduction


The prime objective of this topic is to explore the
electrical properties of materials, that is, their responses to
an applied electric field. We begin with the phenomenon
of electrical conduction: the parameters by which it is
expressed, the mechanism of conduction by electrons,
and how the electron energy-band structure of a material
influences its ability to conduct. These principles are
extended to metals, semiconductors, and insulators.
Particular attention is given to the characteristics of
semiconductors and then to semiconducting devices.
Electrical Conduction

Ohms Law
One of the most important electrical characteristics
of a solid material is the ease with which it transmits an
electric current. Ohms law relates the current or time rate
of charge passage to the applied voltage.
Electrical resistivity is the dependence on
resistance, specimen cross-sectional area, and distance
between measuring points.
Electrical Conductivity
The ease with which a material is capable of
transmitting an electric current is expressed in terms of
electrical conductivity or its reciprocal, electrical resistivity.
The relationship between applied voltage, current,
and resistance is Ohms law. An equivalent expression,
relates current density, conductivity, and electric field
intensity.
On the basis of its conductivity, a solid material
may be classified as a metal, a semiconductor, or an
insulator.
Electronic and Ionic Conduction
For most materials, an electric current results
from the motion of free electrons, which are accelerated in
response to an applied electric field.
In ionic materials, there may also be a net motion
of ions, which also makes a contribution to the conduction
process.

Within most solid materials a current arises from
the flow of electrons, which is termed electronic
conduction. In addition, for ionic materials a net motion of
charged ions is possible that produces a current; this is
termed ionic conduction.
Energy Band Structures in Solids
The number of free electrons depends on the
electron energy band structure of the material.
An electron band is a series of electron states that
are closely spaced with respect to energy, and one such
band may exist for each electron subshell found in the
isolated atom.
Electron energy band structure refers to the
manner in which the outermost bands are arranged
relative to one another and then filled with electrons.
An electron becomes free by being excited from a
filled state to an available empty state at a higher energy.
Electron Mobility
Free electrons being acted on by an electric field
are scattered by imperfections in the crystal lattice. The
magnitude of electron mobility is indicative of the
frequency of these scattering events.
In many materials, the electrical conductivity is
proportional to the product of the electron concentration
and the mobility.
Materials of Importance
The functioning of modern flash memory cards
(and sticks) that are used to store digital information
relies on the unique electrical properties of silicon, a
semiconducting material.
Flash memory is also used in cell phones to
store programs required for making and receiving
calls, as well as frequently-called telephone numbers.
The modern cell phone may also have other
functionalities that necessitate information storagefor
texting, for games, as a camera, and/or as a video
recorder.