Sunteți pe pagina 1din 40

Anatomy: a cutting open, the study of structures.

1. Gross anatomy

2. Microscopic anatomy

a. Cytology: study on a single cell.
b. Histology: study from tissues to organ.


Physiology: principle of life, the study of functions.
Ch. 18 The Endocrine System

Intercellular Communication:

Through mediators

1. Direct Com. Gap junctions ions, etc.

2. Paracrine Com. Extracellular fluids paracrine factors

3. Endocrine Com. Circulatory system hormones

4. Synaptic (Nervous) Com. Synaptic clefts neurotransmitters



(ps.) Hormone: from Greek hormon (to set in motion)
Nervous System Endocrine System

1. faster action (< sec) slower action

2. short-lived action long-term action

3. for crisis management for physiological processes

4. affect limited cells affect more or most cells
Endocrine: chemicals released onto blood or circulatory system.


Exocrine: ------------------------- onto epithelial surface or digestive tract


Paracrine: ---------------------- onto local tissues.




Classes of hormones:

1. Amino acid derivatives:
ex. thyroid hormones, dopamine, epinephrine, NE

2. Peptide hormones:
ex. GH, TSH, oxytocin

3. Lipid derivatives:
a. Eicosanoids: prostaglandins, leukotrienes

b. Steroids: androgens, estrogens, progestins,
cortisol, glucocorticoids.

Machanisms of hormone action 1:

First messengers: hormones

Target cells

Receptors:






Second messengers:
1. c-AMP:
2. c-GMP:
3. Calcium:


Nucleus (DNA)

Lipophobic hormones
Important compounds linked between 1st. and 2nd. messengers:

1. G-proteins: activates the enzyme adenylate cyclase.

2. Adenylate cyclase (AC): converts ATP to c-AMP.

3. Calmodulin: binds to calcium.

Machanisms of hormone action 2:

First messengers: hormones

Target cells

Receptors:










Nucleus (DNA)

(Lipophilic hormones:
Steroids & T
4
, T
3
)
Machanisms of hormone action:

First messengers: hormones

Target cells

Receptors:






Second messengers:
1. c-AMP:
2. c-GMP:
3. Calcium:


Nucleus (DNA) Nucleus (DNA)

(Lipophilic hormones:
Steroids & T
4
, T
3
)
Lipophobic hormones
Receptors: (binding with hormones)

1. Cell membrane receptors: bind to lipophobic hormones:
(ex. peptides, eicosanoids, EPI or NE).

2. Intracellular receptors: bind to lipophilic hormones:
(ex. steroids, T3 or T4).
a. cytoplasm receptors
b. nucleus receptors


Down-regulation of receptors:
Too much hormones decreasing number of receptors


Up-regulation of receptors:
Too less hormones increasing number of receptors




1. Lipophobic hormones

The Process of Amplification
binding of a small number of lipophobic
hormone to membrane receptors
Leads to thousands of second messengers in
cell
Magnifies effect of hormone on target cell




2. Lipophilic hormones

(Thyroid and Steroid Hormones)

Remain in circulation much longer
In bloodstream : More than 99% become attached to
special transport proteins.
Bind with intracellular receptors.
Do not need a second messenger.


Endocrine reflexes (usually, it is negative feedback)

1. Including neural & endocrine reflexes

2. Triggered by :

humoral (fluid) stimuli
hormonal stimuli
neural (neurotransmitter) stimuli.

3. Neuro-endocrine reflex: hypothalamus is an example.


Functions of hypothalamus:

1. Secrets regulatory hormones
(releasing or inhibiting hormones, RH/IH) to control activity of the
anterior pituitary gland.
(ex.TRH, GnRH, GH-RH, GH-IH, PRF, PIF, CRH)

2. Produces ADH and oxytocin and releases them into
posterior pituitary gland.

3. Exerts direct neural control of sympathetic output to adrenal medulla
for secretion of epinephrine and norepinephrine (NE).

Hypophyseal portal veins:

1.Hormones pass through 2 capillary networks directly.
(bypass the heart)

Endocrine cells capillary net #1 portal veins

capillary net #2 target cells


2. Maintain RH/IH in high concentration when they reach
anterior pituitary gland.
(prevent RH/IH from being diluted by general circulation).

(ps.): another portal vein in the body:
hepatic portal vein in liver.
General circulation in endocrine system:




Endocrine cells capillary network veins

heart arteries capillary target cells




Median Eminence

1. Lower part of hypothalamus near the
infundibulum of pituitary gland
2. Where hypothalamic neurons release
regulatory factors
Into interstitial fluids
Through fenestrated capillaries


1. TRH (thyrotropin RH): sti the release of TSH
2. CRH (corticotropin RH): sti the release of ACTH
3. GnRH (gonadotropin RH): sti --------------- LH & FSH
4. GHRH (growth hormone RH): sti ------------ GH
5. GHIH (= somatostatin): inhibit --------------- GH
6. PIF (prolactin inhibiting factor) = dopamine: inh. PRL
7. PRF (prolactin RF): sti the release of PRL
8. MSH-IH =MIH (melanotropin IH): inh. the release of MSH
From hypothalamus
From anterior
pituitary
Pituitary gland: (= Hypophysis)

1. Anterior lobe = Adeno-hypophysis (produces & releases 7 hormones)

a. Pars tuberalis
b. Pars distalis (major part) : TSH, ACTH, PRL, LH , FSH, & GH
c. Pars intermedia (intermedia lobe): produces MSH


2. Posterior lobe = Neuro-hypophysis (releases 2 hormones)

a. ADH (anti-diuretic hormone):
(+) water reabsorption in the kidney,
(+) water intake (drinking behavior).

b. Oxytocin:
(+) smooth muscle contraction in uterus & prostate ,
(+) ejection of milk.


Thyroid gland:

1. Thyroid follicles:
a. Follicle cells: (simple cuboidal epithelium) produce
thyroglobulin, thyroxine (T4) & T3.

b. Follicle cavity: viscous colloid (stored thyroglobulin)

2. C cells: outside of follicle (produce calcitonin =CT):
decrease calcium in blood.

3. T4,T3: bind to thyroid-binding globulin(TBG), transthyretin,
albumin or free form.

4. Functions of the thyroid gland:

a. (+) oxygen & energy consumption, (+) body temp.

b. (+) Heart rate (HR) & Blood pressure (BP).

c. Maintenance of respiratory functions in lungs

d. Sti. RBC formation -- (+) oxygen delivery

e. Sti. other endocrine tissues

f. (+) bone mineral turnover & bone growth

g. (+) brain development

Parathyroid glands: (2 pairs)

1. Located in the posterior surface of the thyroid gland.

2. Chief cells: produce PTH (parathyroid hormone)
(+) calcium in blood.

3. Functions:
a. (+) Osteoclast (release of calcium from bone)
b. (+) calcium reabsorption at kidney
c. (+) calcitriol formation in kidney:
(+) Ca
+2
& PO
4
absorption by digestive system

Adrenal glands: (Suprarenal glands)

1. Adrenal cortex: yellow color (Stimulated by ACTH)
a. Zona glomerulosa: outer layer
* produce mineralo-corticoids: ex. Aldosterone
* Function: (Table 18-5)

b. Zona fasciculata: middle layer, 78% of the cortex
* produce gluco-corticoids: ex. Cortisol
* Functions:

c. Zona reticularis: inner layer
* produce androgens
* Functions:


2. Adrenal medulla:
* produce epinephrine (75-80%) & NE.
* Functions: (crisis management)
Pancreas:

1. Pancreatic acini: exocrine cells (produce digestive enzymes)

2. Pancreatic islets (or Islets of Langerhans): 1 %, endocrine cells

a. Alpha cells produce glucagon: (+) glucose in blood
b. Beta cells produce insulin: (-) glucose in blood
c. Delta cells produce somatostatin (= GH-IH)
d. F cells pancreatic polypeptide (PP)




(ps.) Hyperglycemia: High levels of glucose in blood.

Hypoglycemia: Low levels of glucose in blood.
Hormones produced by kidney:

1. EPO= Erythropoietin: (+) RBC production.

2. Calcitriol: Produced from vitamin D
3
(= cholecalciferol) with the
presence of PTH.

3. Renin: (an enzyme and also a hormone)

a. Converts angiotensinogen to angiotensin I (in liver)

b. Angiotensin I changes to Angiotensin II (by another enzyme)

c. Angiotensin II (+) Aldosterone, ADH & drinking
(+) Blood volume, BP

Heart:

Produce Natriuretic peptides (NP): (+) water loss in urine.
1. ANP
2. BNP




Adipose tissues (fat):

1. Leptin: (-) appetite & food intake,
(+) FSH & LH synthesis



Stomach & intestines:

Produce hormones to coordinate digestive activities.
[ex. Gastrin, secretin, cholecystokinin (CCK)]

Thymus:

Produce thymosins for the differentiation of T-lymphocytes.
Gonads:

1. Testes:
a. Interstitial cells (Leydig cells): produce androgens

b. Sustentacular cells (= Nurse cells = Sertoli cells):
produce inhibin to inhibit FSH secretion.

2. Ovaries:
a. Follicular cells: produce estrogens & inhibin
b. Corpus luteum: produce progesterone
Pineal gland: (contains pinealocytes)

a. Stimulated by neural input from hypothalamus
( supera-chiasmatic nucleus, SCN)

b. SCN serves as a biological clock
(active at darkness, inactive at light)

c. Produce melatonin (released during darkness):
** Setting circadian rhythms
** Promoting sleep
** Suppressing reproductive function


Hormonal Interactions:

1. Antagonistic (opposing) effect

2. Synergistic (additive) effect: ex. GH & cortisol

3. Permissive effect: ex. Epinephrine & T4

4. Integrative effects: ex. PTH & calcitriol

Hormones in Growth:

1. GH
2. Thyroid hormones (T4)
3. Insulin
4. PTH & CT
5. Reproductive hormones (androgens & estrogens)
Response to stress:

1. Alarm phase: (dominant hormone: epinephrine)

2. Resistance phase: (few hours, days, or weeks):
dominant hormone: glucocortocoids
(ex. Cortisol)

3. Exhaustion phase:
failure of organs death

Clinic terms:

1. Diabetes insipidus: inadequate production of ADH from
the posterior pituitary gland (water loss in urine).


2. Diabetes mellitus: (Glucose loss in urine)

a. Type I: inadequate production of insulin from beta cells
of pancreatic islets.
(insulin-dependent)

b. Type II: Cells are insensitive to insulin
(insulin-independent)
Diabetes Mellitus
Diabetes mellitus marked by hyperglycemia
excessive urine production (polyuria)
excessive thirst (polydipsia)
excessive eating (polyphagia)
Type I----deficiency of insulin (under 20-yr old)
Type II---adult onset
drug stimulates secretion of insulin by beta
cells
cells may be less sensitive to hormone

Addisons disease
Hyposecretion of glucocorticoids &
aldosterone (= adrenal cortex
destruction)
hypoglycemia, muscle weakness, low BP,
dehydration due to decreased Na
+
in blood
mimics skin darkening effects of MSH
potential cardiac arrest
Cushings Syndrome
Hypersecretion of glucocorticoids
Redistribution of fat, spindly arms & legs due to
muscle loss
Wound healing is poor, bruise easily
Thyroid Gland Disorders
Hyposecretion during infancy results in
dwarfism & retardation called cretinism
Hypothyroidism in adult produces
sensitivity to cold, low body temp. weight
gain & mental dullness
Hyperthyroidism (Graves disease)
weight loss, nervousness, tremor &
exophthalmos (edema behind eyes)
Goiter = enlarged thyroid (dietary)
Pituitary Gland Disorders
Hyposecretion during childhood = pituitary
dwarfism (proportional, childlike body)
Hypersecretion during childhood = giantism
very tall, normal proportions
Hypersecretion as adult = acromegaly
growth of hands, feet, facial features &
thickening of skin

S-ar putea să vă placă și