Lesson Objective: Describe the detailed structure and
function of cell wall.
TOPIC 2.1: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ORGANELLES In plants, the plasma membrane is surrounded by a rigid cellulose cell wall that distinguishes them from animal cells. The cell wall protects the plant cell, maintains its shape, and prevents excessive uptake of water. The basic composition of the walls are microfibrils that made of the polysaccharide cellulose & embedded in a matrix of other polysaccharides & protein. A young plant cell first secretes a thin & flexible wall called the primary cell wall. 2.1: a. CELL WALL TOPIC 2.1: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ORGANELLES Between primary walls of adjacent cells is the middle lamella, a thin layer rich in sticky polysaccharides called pectin. The middle lamella glues the cells together. After the cell stop growing, either new wall material is secreted that thicken & solidifies the primary wall or multiple layers of a secondary cell wall with a different chemical composition are formed between the primary wall & the plasma membrane.
TOPIC 2.1: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ORGANELLES TOPIC 2.1: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ORGANELLES The primary cell wall contains cellulose microfibrils loosely arranged. The microfibrils are embedded in an amorphous matrix of hemicellulos, calcium & magnesium pectate. This arrangement produces spaces between microfibrils. The cell wall is freely permeable to water & solutes. In secondary cell wall, the cellulose microfibrils are more compact & successive layers are arranged at different angles. Additional thickening such as lignin in tracheids & xylem vessels give mechanical strength & support. TOPIC 2.1: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ORGANELLES Suberin in cork cells & cutin on epidermal surfaces reduce evaporation of water & entry of pathogens. The cell walls have pits. These pits enable cytoplasmic strands (plasmodesmata) to pass through the connecting cytoplasm of one cell & its adjacent cell. Pit in lignified walls of tracheids & xylem vessels allow lateral transport to take place. TOPIC 2.1: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ORGANELLES Lesson Objective: Describe the structure, function and location of cytoplasm.
TOPIC 2.1: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ORGANELLES Cytoplasm is the entire region between the nucleus & the plasma membrane. It consist of cytosol & organelles suspended in it. Cytosol contains various component: About 90% water & solutes such as sugars, amino acids, enzymes, fatty acids, nucleotides, ATP & dissolved gases. Large molecules such as proteins which form colloids Microfilaments & microtubules which form the cytoskeleton, providing support to the cell & are involved in cell mortality.
b. CYTOPLASM. Lesson Objective: Describe the detailed structure, function and location of organelles.
TOPIC 2.1: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ORGANELLES This is one of the specialize structures in the cell that carry out specific functions, such as the mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, ribosomes; many organelles are membrane-bounded. The membranes that surround membrane- bounded organelles & the plasma membrane have the same basic structure. c. ORGANELLES Lesson Objective: Describe the structure, function and location of nucleus.
TOPIC 2.1: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ORGANELLES Nucleus is the most prominent organelle in the cell. It is usually spherical or oval in shape & averages 5m in diameter. The nuclear envelope consists of 2 layers of membranes that separate the nuclear contents from the surrounding cytoplasm. The spaces between the outer membrane & the inner membrane is known as perinucleus. The nuclear envelope is perforated by numerous pores. Nuclear pores regulate the passage of materials between nucleoplasm & cytoplasm. i. NUCLEUS TOPIC 2.1: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ORGANELLES Most of the cells DNA is located inside the nucleus. DNA is associated with histone proteins, forming a complex known chromatin. In dividing cells, the chromatin condenses & becomes visible, called chromosomes. Most nuclei have one or more compact structures called nucleoli (sing.,nucleolus). A nucleolus is not membrane-bounded. Here a special type of RNA called ribosomal RNA is synthesized.
TOPIC 2.1: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ORGANELLES TOPIC 2.1: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ORGANELLES TOPIC 2.1: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ORGANELLES Functions of nucleus Chromosome contain the genetic material of the cell. The nuclear acts as the centre to control cell activities and cell division. Production of ribosomes and RNAs needed for protein and enzyme synthesis. Lesson Objective: Describe the structure, function and location of ER.
TOPIC 2.1: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ORGANELLES The ER is a membranous system which is continuous with the outer membrane & scattered extensively in the cell. There are 2 distinct types of ER: 1. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER) 2. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER) Although these regions have different functions, the membranes are connected and their internal spaces are continuous. ii. ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER) TOPIC 2.1: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ORGANELLES The RER consists of an interconnected system of membrane-bounded flattened sacs called sisternae. It is continuous with the outer membrane of the nucleus & has many ribosome on the outer surface of its membrane. RER is abundant in cells which are rapidly growing or secretory cells. Eg: pancreatic cells. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER) TOPIC 2.1: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ORGANELLES TOPIC 2.1: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ORGANELLES Polypeptide chains synthesized by ribosomes are modified by enzymes that add complex carbohydrates or lipids to them forming glycoprotein or lipoprotein. The protein are then transferred to other compartments by small transport vesicles. Transport vesicles containing modified proteins are budded off from RER & transported to the Golgi apparatus. Functions of RER TOPIC 2.1: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ORGANELLES SER is more tubular & does not have ribosomes bound to it, so its outer membrane surfaces appear smooth. SER is abundant in cells involved in lipid & steroid hormone synthesis, eg. cells in the testes & ovaries or cells involved in detoxification, eg. liver cells. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER) TOPIC 2.1: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ORGANELLES The SER is the site of lipid synthesis (triglycerides, phospholipids,cholesterol & steroid hormone) & the metabolism of carbohydrate.eg. SER in liver cells. Enzymes of the SER in liver cells are involved in detoxification. eg. drugs & alcohol. The SER becomes modified to form sarcoplasmic reticulum surrounding the muscle microfibril. It stores or release calcium ions for muscle contraction. The ER divides the cytoplasm into more compartments & increase surface area for chemical reactions to take place. Functions of SER TOPIC 2.1: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ORGANELLES Lesson Objective: Describe the structure, function and location of Golgi body.
TOPIC 2.1: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ORGANELLES First described in 1898 by the Italian microscopist Camillo Golgi. Golgi apparatus consists of a stack of flattened, membrane-bounded sacs called cisternae. However, unlike ER the internal spaces of Golgi complex & the membranes are not continuous. Each stack contains about 4-7 sisternae. Each Golgi stack has three areas referred to as cis & trans faces with a medial region between. iii.GOLGI APPARATUS/GOLGI BODY TOPIC 2.1: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ORGANELLES Typically, the cis face is located nearest the nucleus & functions to receive materials from transport vesicles from the ER. The trans face, nearest to the plasma membrane, packages molecules in vesicles & transports them out of the Golgi. The Golgi apparatus is continuously being formed at the cis-end to replace the vesicles whish bud off at the trans-end. Golgi apparatus is abundant in secretory cells & cells rapidly dividing e.g. Pancreatic cells, goblet cells, cells in testes & ovaries.
TOPIC 2.1: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ORGANELLES TOPIC 2.1: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ORGANELLES TOPIC 2.1: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ORGANELLES The Golgi apparatus functions principally to process, sort, & modify proteins. The glycoproteins are synthesize in the RER & later in the Golgi. The glycoproteins are transported from the RER to the cis face of the Golgi apparatus in a small transport vesicles formed from the ER membrane. Products of the ER are usually modified during their transit from the cis face to the trans face of the Golgi. Functions of Golgi Apparatus. TOPIC 2.1: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ORGANELLES For e.g. various Golgi enzymes modify the oligosaccharide portions of glycoproteins. Oligosaccharides are first added to proteins in the RER. The Golgi removes some sugar monomers & substitutes others, producing a large variety of oligosaccharides. Glycoproteins are packaged in secretory vesicles in the trans region. These vesicles pinch off from the Golgi membrane & transport their contents to a specific destination.
TOPIC 2.1: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ORGANELLES Vesicles transporting products for export from the cell fuse with the plasma membrane. The vesicles becomes part of the plasma membrane & the glycoproteins are secreted from the cells. Other vesicles may store glycoproteins for secretion at a later time. In animal cells, the Golgi apparatus also manufactures lysosomes. In plants cells, the Golgi secretes polysaccharides for the formation of cell plates & cell walls. Lesson Objective: Describe the structure, function and location of lysosome
TOPIC 2.1: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ORGANELLES Lysosomes are produced by the Golgi apparatus. They are spherical, small sacs covered by a single membrane. The membrane is resistant to digestion & prevents the release of enzymes which would destroy the cell contents. Lysosomes contain a high concentration of hydrolytic enzymes involved in intracellular digestion such as protease, lipase. iv. LYSOSOMES (SUICIDE BAG) Lesson Objective: Describe the structure, function and location of lysosome
TOPIC 2.1: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ORGANELLES Primary lysosomes are formed by budding from the Golgi apparatus. Their hydrolytic enzymes are synthesized in the RER. One or more primary lysosomes fuse with the vesicle containing the ingested material, forming a larger vesicle called secondary lysosome. In the secondary lysosome the powerful enzymes come in contact with the ingested molecules & degrade them into their components.
TOPIC 2.1: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ORGANELLES TOPIC 2.1: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ORGANELLES 1) Digestion of ingested food. - Primary lysosome fuses with the food vacuole forming a secondary lysosome, hyrolytic enzymes are released to break down the food into smaller particles for absorption. 2. Autophagy - The worn-out organelle, eg. mitochondria is surrounded by SER to form autophagosome. Functions of lysosomes TOPIC 2.1: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ORGANELLES -Lysosome fuses with the autophagosome & enzyme are then released to digest the organelle.
TOPIC 2.1: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ORGANELLES TOPIC 2.1: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ORGANELLES 3. In cells that carry out phagocytosis e.g. neutrophils & macrophages, the lysosomes fuse with the phagocytic vacuoles to break down the pathogens e.g. bacteria.
4. Autolysis - In old or damaged cells. Enzymes are released to digest the cell. - Role in metamorphosis eg. The reabsorption of tadpole tails, the digestion of larval tissues to be replaced by new tissues.
Lesson Objective: Describe the structure, function and location of ribosomes.
TOPIC 2.1: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ORGANELLES Ribosomes are small, dense granules & made of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) & protein. Ribosome is composed of two subunits: a large subunit & a small subunit.
v. RIBOSOMES TOPIC 2.1: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ORGANELLES Ribosomes are found attached to the RER or occur freely within the cytoplasm. Ribosomes can occur singly or group together to form polysomes. Cells that have high rates of proteins synthesis have a particularly large number of ribosomes. E.g. a human pancreas cells.
TOPIC 2.1: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ORGANELLES Site of proteins synthesis. - Most of the proteins made by free ribosomes will function within the cytosol,eg. are enzymes that catalyze the first step of sugar break down. - Bound ribosomes generally makes proteins that are destined either for insertion into membrane, for packaging within certain organelles such as lysosomes, or for export from the cells (secretion). Functions of ribosomes TOPIC 2.1: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ORGANELLES Mitochondria are found in nearly all eukaryotic cells, including those of plants, animals, fungi & protists. Mitochondria are about 1-10m long. The mitochondrion is enclosed by two membranes; the outer membrane is smooth, but the inner membrane is convoluted, with infoldings called cristae. Cristae greatly increase the surface area of the inner membrane, providing a surface for the chemical reactions. vi. MITOCHONDRION Lesson Objective: Describe the structure, function and location of mitochondria
TOPIC 2.1: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ORGANELLES TOPIC 2.1: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ORGANELLES Between the two membranes is the intermembrane space. The inner membrane encloses a fluid-filled matrix. In the matrix can be found a few circular strands of DNA, 70S ribosomes & enzymes that used in the Krebs cycle. DNA in the mitochondria enables the mitochondria to replicate during cell division. Function of mitochondria Mitochondrion are the sites of cellular respiration, the catabolic process that generates ATP. TOPIC 2.1: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ORGANELLES Chloroplasts are large plastids found in the photosynthetic tissues of plant e.g. mesophyll cells & algae. Chloroplasts are organelles that contain chlorophyll, a green pigment that traps energy for photosynthesis. Chloroplasts also contain a variety of yellow & orange light-absorbing pigments known as carotenoids. Chloroplast are typically disc-shaped structures, measuring about 5 to 10m in lengths. vii. CHLOROPLASTS Lesson Objective: Describe the structure, function and location of chloroplast.
TOPIC 2.1: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ORGANELLES Chloroplast is bounded by a double membrane. The inner membrane encloses a fluid-filled space called the stroma, which contains enzyme ( catalyse light-independent reactions), circular DNA, ribosomes, starch granules & lipid globules. A series of interconnecting flattened membrane-bounded sacs, called the thylakoids, are found in the stroma. Thylakoid membranes may be stacked into granum (plural, grana). TOPIC 2.1: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ORGANELLES Site of photosynthesis. - The grana & thylakoid membrane provide large surface areas for chlorophyll & accessory pigments to be located to trap light energy & carry out production of ATP & NADPH. - The stroma contains enzymes to carry out light-independent reaction ( Calvin cycle ) & the production of high energy organic molecules e.g. sugar. Functions of chloroplasts. Lesson Objective: Describe the structure, function and location of centrioles.
TOPIC 2.1: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ORGANELLES Centrioles are found in animal cells. The centrioles are located outside the nucleus in a material of poorly defined structure called the centrosome. Centrioles are paired cylinders ( about 0.3-0.5 m long & 0.24m diameter) & held at right angle to each other. Each cylinder consists of nine triplets of microtubules in a 9+0 arrangement. The centrioles separate & move to opposite ends of the cell before cell division. vii. CENTRIOLES TOPIC 2.1: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ORGANELLES TOPIC 2.1: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ORGANELLES Centrioles act as organizers of spindle fibers & are involved in the separation of chromosomes or chromatids during cell division. In some cells, centrioles divide to produce basal bodies from which flagella & cillia develop. Functions of centrioles TOPIC 2.1: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ORGANELLES The cytoplasm contains a cytoskeleton which has 3 components: - microtubules - microfilaments - intermediate filaments The cytoskeleton gives mechanical support, maintains cell shape & aids cell motility. c. THE CYTOSKELETON TOPIC 2.1: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ORGANELLES The structure & function of the cytoskeleton Property Microtubules Microfilaments Structure
Diameter
Hollow tubes; wall consists of 13 columns of tubulin Molecules.
25nm with 15nm Lumen. 2 intertwined strands of actin.
7nm TOPIC 2.1: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ORGANELLES Protein Subunits
Main functions Tubulin, consisting of -tubulin & -tubulin.
Maintenance of cell shape. Cell motility ( as in cilia & flagella). Chromosome movements in cell division. Organelle movements. Actin
Maintenance of cell shape. Changes in cell shape. Muscle contraction. Cytoplasmic streaming. Cell motility ( as in pseudopodia). Cell division.
TOPIC 2.1: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ORGANELLES Lesson Objective: Describe the structure, function and location of vacuoles
TOPIC 2.1: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ORGANELLES Vacuoles are cavities bound by a single membrane Young plant cells usually have many vacuoles which fuse to form a single large central vacuole, the nucleus & cytoplasm are pushed to the cell periphery. The plant vacuole contains cell sap & is surrounded by a single membrane called tonoplast. The cell sap is a solution containing dissolved organic molecules eg. sugars & amino acids, pigments, mineral ions, oxygen, carbon dioxide & some waste products. The vacuoles in animal cells are smaller & temporary. They are formed by phagocytosis or pinocytosis VACUOLES TOPIC 2.1: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ORGANELLES Function of vacuoles In plants the vacuole functions to store food substances e.g. sugars, amino acids & mineral ions. Vacuoles of some cells eg. petals of flowers contain colored pigments to attract insects for pollination. Vacuoles in leaves accumulate some waste products eg. tannins & are removed whe.n the leaves fall.
Lesson Objective:Describe the structure, function and location of plasma membrane. Description of Fluid Mosaic Model is required.
TOPIC 2.1: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ORGANELLES All cell are covered by a thin plasma membrane (cell surface membrane) which separates the cell contents from the extracellular environment. The plasma membrane & the organelle membrane have the same basic structure. In 1972, S. J. Singer & G.L.Nicolson proposed the fluid-mosaic model of cell membrane consisting of a bilayer of phospholipids with various protein molecules embedded & attached to it. The membrane is about 7 - 7.5nm thick. PLASMA MEMBRANE TOPIC 2.1: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ORGANELLES A phospholipid is an amphipathic molecule, meaning it has both a hydrophilic region & a hydrophobic region. The cell membrane consists of a phospholipid bilayer. The polar hydrophilic heads of phospholipids point outwards, attracted to the aqueous surrounding & form hydrogen bonds with water molecules. The non-polar, hydrophobic tails face inwards, & are attracted to one another by hydrophobic interactions & Van der Waals forces.
TOPIC 2.1: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ORGANELLES There are 2 major classes of membrane proteins, integral proteins (intrinsic protein) & peripheral proteins (extrinsic protein). Peripheral proteins are not embedded in the lipid bilayer at all, they are loosely bound to the outer & inner surface of the membrane. The integral proteins are embedded partially in the membrane & some penetrate through the membrane.
TOPIC 2.1: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ORGANELLES The protein part that contains hydrophobic amino acids interact with the hydrophobic fatty acid chains to expel the water. The hydrophilic part of the protein is attracted to the aqueous. Some of the proteins & phospholipids conjugate with short branched oligosaccharides to form glycoproteins & glycolipids on the outer surface. These are important for cell recognition.
TOPIC 2.1: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ORGANELLES TOPIC 2.1: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ORGANELLES Membrane fluidity Cell membrane are not static sheets of molecules locked rigidly in place. It is dynamic, fluid structures. Most of the lipids & some of the proteins can move laterally or change places that is in the plane of the membrane give the membrane fluidity. Unsaturated fatty acids have double bonds which form kinks. These prevent close packing of the phospholipid molecules, increase fluidity & promote movement of substances across the membrane TOPIC 2.1: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ORGANELLES The steroid cholesterol, which is found between phospholipid molecules, has different effects on membrane fluidity cholesterol makes the membrane less fluid by restraining the movement of phospholipids
TOPIC 2.1: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ORGANELLES The proteins are scattered in the fluid phospholipid bilayer giving a mosaic appearance & have different structure & functions.
Membranes are mosaics of structure & function Lesson Objective: Explain the roles of phospholipid and protein in membrane.
TOPIC 2.1: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ORGANELLES Surface membrane forms a protective barrier between cell contents & external environment, & determine the shape of the cell. Form membranous organelles, for eg. mitochondria, chloroplast & ER. Membranes are selectively permeable & regulate movement of substances in & out of the cell. - small molecules such as oxygen, CO2 & hydrophobic molecules diffuse through phospholipid bilayers down a concentration gradient. Functions of membrane. TOPIC 2.1: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ORGANELLES - Protein channels & carriers move polar ions, molecules, for e.g. glucose & amino acids across membranes by facilitated diffusion. - The protein pumps actively transport substances against a concentration gradient. Some membrane proteins act as electron carriers in the electron transport chain. Glycoproteins with branching oligosaccharides act as antigens TOPIC 2.1: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ORGANELLES Glycolipids are involved in cell-cell recognition. Cell adhesion proteins join cells together forming tissue which carries out specific function. Cholesterol molecules help to stabilize the membrane structure & reduce the entry or exit of polar molecules through the membrane. TOPIC 2.1: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ORGANELLES Cell-cell recognition, a cells ability to distinguish one type of neighboring cell from another. It is important, for eg. in the sorting of cells into tissues & organs. It also the basis for the rejection of foreign cells ( including those of transplanted organ) by immune system. The oligosaccharides on the external side of the plasma membrane vary from species to species, among individuals of the same species, & even from one cell type to another in a single individual. Membrane carbohydrates are important for cell-cell recognition. TOPIC 2.1: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ORGANELLES The diversity of the molecules & their location on the cells surface enable oligosaccharides to function as markers that distinguish one cell from another, for e.g. the human blood groups designated A, B, AB & O reflect variation in the oligosaccharide on the surface of the blood cells.