DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

THEORY



AUTHOR

Prof. Dr. ABDUL QADIR
Chapter 02


BASE BAND SIGNAL GENERATION
Author
Prof. Dr. Abdul Qadir
2.1 Formatting
The process of digitization/ PCM generation
-Sampling
- Quantization
- encoding
Sampling types
-Impulse sampling
- natural sampling
- flat top sampling
2.2 Discrete time signals
Discrete time continuous amplitude signals
Discrete time discrete amplitude signals
Encoded signals (PCM)



2.3 Quantization Noise/error
This is because of discrete levels
depends on quantization levels (Av)
PDF of quantization noise is uniform
quantization error/noise is given by:


Where is the peak value and L is number of
quantization levels


where is the voltage division (per level)
2
2
2
3L
v
q
p
=
12
) (
2
2
v
q
A
=
p
v
v A
2.4 Block diagram of formatting
Digital information
Sample
quantize encode
Pulse
modulator
channel
Demodulate
decode

LPF
Fig.2.1
Textual
information
Analogue
format
Analog information



Textual
information

Digital information
2.5 Signal to Noise ratio of PCM
S/N of Received signal in PCM can be obtained as:

2
2
2
2
2
2
) (
3
3
) (
) ( ) (
p
p
R
v
t v
L
N
S
L
v
noise
t v Power
t q t v v
=
=
=
+ =
2.6 Non linear PCM
Linear PCM was applied first in telephony in USA
It was found to associate with certain issues
(what issues?)
Problems were studied by the engineers of AT&T
and it was found that problems exists because of
linear PCM
Linear PCM has uniform quantization levels versus
normalized signal value
Hence concept of non linear PCM was
introduced
In non linear PCM the quantization levels are
non uniform
2.7 Types of Non Linear PCM
1. -law PCM:


2. A-law:

+
+
=
p
v
v
y

1 ln
) 1 ln(
1

< s

+
+
< s
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
1 / ) / 1 .....( ln 1
ln 1
1
) / 1 ( / 0 .. ..........
ln 1
p
p
p
p
v v A
v
Av
A
A v v
v
v
A
A
y
and A are called companding parameters
The CCITT recommended values of these
parameters are:
= 255
A = 87.6
should be greater than 100 for obtaining SNR
over 40 dB.
Transmission BW and output SNR:
Transmission BW:



nB B
T
=
SNR of Non Linear PCM
Output SNR is given by:









PCM SNR in dB is given by:

| |

+
=
=
.
...... .......... ..........
) 1 ln(
3
........ .......... ..........
) (
3
) 2 (
2
2
2
) / ( 2
companded
d uncompande
v
t v
c
where
c
N
S
p
B B
T

n c
N
S
dB
6 log 10 + =
|
.
|

\
|
2.8 Formatted Textual Data (character coding)
ASCII CODES
ASCII chart and coding
examples
Encode in bit stream How
r u ?
corresponding bit stream is:
1001000110111111101110100000
1110010010000011101010111111


ASCII Codes
2.9 Line Coding
If sent in discrete units, the collection and
assembling of symbols/digits may be difficult
Hence the symbols/digits are converted into
equivalent analog format
This process is called Line coding (in some texts
channel coding)
The symbols/digits are combined using criteria
into a waveform like signal, called line coded
signal.
2.10 Various Line Coding Schemes
1. Unipolar NRZ:
Levels are defined for 1 and 0
level is held high or low during the entire bit
interval (as per defined levels values)
So it there two 1s in a row, the level will
remain high for two bit intervals
Scheme is simple and easy to implement
Easy to decode
It introduces adequate DC level
DC level has certain disadvantages (listed in
next slide)

DC component consumes larger amount of
energy
AC coupling is difficult
In some applications such as magnetic tape
recording, the DC level already causes some
magnetic saturation hence little room left for
signal, specially the low frequency information
may be lost
Application like transformer coupling, core
saturation may be the issue, which results in
distortion or information loss
2. Unipolar RZ:
The voltage level returns to zero after half bit
interval for high (say for instance for 1)
for low (e.g. for 0), it remains low
throughout bit duration
This required excessive switching for high, and
has more switching loss.
moreover, the hardware is more complex than
required for NRZ
It has lesser DC level compared to NRZ
1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1
reference
1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1
reference

Fig.2.2: Unipolar NRZ and RZ waveforms
Bit
intervel
NRZ waveform
RZ waveform
data
3. Alternate Mark Invert (AMI):
It is also called Pseudo Ternary line coding
The high level is called mark and represents
binary 1
mark changes polarity alternately, i.e. if first
mark is positive, the next will be having negative
polarity and so on it keeps changing polarity
alternately.
0 is represented by zero level

This scheme has almost zero DC level and
excessive power saving
It has switching loss because of frequent
switching as and when 1 appears
This scheme is very commonly used in T1-
carrier system in USA by AT&T
T1-carrier is popular baseband system used in
telephony
In Pakistan, E1-carrier system is in use

reference
1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1
reference

Fig.2.3: AMI line coding for same data as in Fig.2.2
Bit
intervel
data
4.Manchester Coding:
Also called bi-phase-level, bi-phase mark,
delay modulation or Miller coding
This is commonly employed in magnetic
recording, optical communication, satellite
telemetry
The coding algorithm is (i) for binary 1, first
half of bit interval is HIGH (and second half is
low) and for binary 0, second half is HIGH
(and first half is low)
It may be unipolar or bipolar.
Transition is at the middle of every bit, hence precise
clocking is needed



5. 2B1Q system:
It is bipolar scheme
2B1Q stands for 2 binary 1 quaternary system
In this scheme each level is defined for a group
of 2 bits
This scheme is used in ISDN (Integrated Services
Digital Networks)systems
The data rate is double that of the schemes
describes earlier
The average DC level depends on data pattern
However, there is frequent switching and
switching loss is there
Coding algorithm is as under:
It works with data containing even number of
bits.
The groups of two bits are formed
There are two levels used to represent the
data, 1V and 3V with dual polarity
The first bit defines the polarity of voltage and
second bit describe the level of the voltage





If first bit is zero, it represents negative level
and if it is 1, it represents positive voltage
If the second bit is 0, it represents a level of
3 volts and if it is 1, it represents 1V level
Hence 01 will represent -1 volt level and
10 will represent +3 volt level and so on.
Fig.2.4 describes the summary
Fig.2.5 describes one coding example
Second bit
First
bit
0
1
0
1
-3V
-1V
+3V +1V
Fig.2.4: Waveform coding scheme in 2B1Q scheme
data 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0
0
1V
3V
-1V
-3V
Fig.2.5: 2B1Q waveform coding
t
7. High Density Bipolar signaling (HDBn):
It is a modified version of AMI
This system is introduced to cater for long chain
of zeros (0s) in AMI (hence also called trans-
coding)
long chain of zeros may cause error
Normally n = 3, and the system is called HDB3
This means not more than consecutive zeros are
allowed
i.e. if a 4
th
zero occurs in the stream, it is no
longer represented by zero level, rather it is
represented by a mark (i.e. approved voltage
level corresponding to 1, +ve or ve, as the
case may be)
This is called voilation bit
This is used in E1 carrier system
Rules for HDB3 coding:
More than three zeros are not allowed to be present in
the waveform
For fourth zero, violation bit is introduced
violation bit has same polarity as the previous mark
two consecutive violation bits have opposite polarities
It the number of marks between two consecutive
violation bits is even the format should be B00V,
where B is stuffing bit and of opposite polarity to the
previous mark
If number of marks is odd, the format should be 000V
Example: For the data stream given
below, draw the AMI and
HDB3 waveforms

1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
0
0
AMI coding
HDB3 coding
V
V
Fig.2.6
B8ZS (Bipolar 8 Zero Sequence):
This is designed to eliminate string of 8
consecutive zeros (0s)
Long chain of 0s may introduce error
it is used with T1 carrier
The coding rule is :(successive violations are alternate to avoid DC level)
Replace string of 8 zeros according to following:

+ +
+ + +
ve was zero non prevous if
ve was zero non prevous if
.. .. .. .. .. ........ 0 000
.. .. .. .. .. ........ 0 000
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
0
Fig.2.7: B8ZS encoding
+v
-v
2.11 Practical approach to Line Code Generation
Bits generated from PCM generator are
collected
Each bit is then converted into the combination
of a number of samples
The decision is taken as to how many samples
per bit are to be used, e.g. n samples/bit
So signals are spaced n samples apart
The pulse production scheme is shown in the
Fig.2.8
ROM
0


1
-1


+1
a
n


Makes
impulses,
h(n)

a
n
h(n)


Bits(binary)
P(n)
a
n
p(n)

Fig.2.8: Binary Baseband Signal Generator
FIR filter
ROM
00

01

10

11



+3

+1

-1

-3
a
n


Makes
impulses,
h(n)

a
n
h(n)


Bits(binary)
P(n)
a
n
p(n)

Fig.2.9: 4-ary Baseband Signal Generator
FIR filter