Chapter 27

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• Anatomy
– Study of an organism’s structure – parts that compose
it and their location in the body
• Physiology
– Describes how those parts work
• Organizational hierarchy in the body
– Cells
– Tissues – groups of cells that interact and provide
specific functions
– Organs – made of 2 or more interacting tissues
– Organ systems – 2 or more organs joined physically
or functionally
 Four tissue types
1. Epithelial
– Coat body’s internal and external surfaces with one
or more layers of tightly packed cells
– Protection, nutrient absorption, gas diffusion
– Forms glands that secrete substances such as milk
or sweat
– Always has a free surface exposed either to the
outside or to a space within the body
– Opposite surface anchored to other tissues by a
basement membrane
– Tight junctions may join cells into leak-proof sheets
– Classified by shape and number of cells layers
2. Connective tissue
– Most variable tissue type
– Fill spaces, attach epithelium to other tissues,
protect and cushion organs, provide mechanical
support
– Cells embedded in extracellular matrix of nonliving
substances
– Fibroblasts
• Manufacture and secrete collagen and elastin protein fibers
into matrix (except blood)
• Secrete ground substance (solid as in bone, liquid as in
blood, semisolid as in cartilage)
– Characterized by cell specializations, matrix
composition, and proportion of cells to matrix
3. Nervous tissue
– Conveys information within an animal’s body
– 2 cell types
• Neurons form communication networks that
receive, process, and transmit information
• Neuroglia are support cells that assist neurons in
functioning
4. Muscle tissue
– Cells that contract when protein filaments slide past
one another
– Abundant mitochondria provide energy for
contraction
– 3 types
• Skeletal – cells called muscle fibers have many nuclei,
striated, attaches to bone, voluntary
• Cardiac – only in heart, striated, involuntary
• Smooth – not striated, involuntary, pushes food along
intestines, controls diameter of blood vessels, controls
pupil size
 5 groups of organ systems
1. Communication
– Nervous system
– Endocrine system
1. Support and movement
– Skeletal system
– Muscular system
1. Acquiring energy
– Digestive system
– Circulatory system
– Respiratory system
1. Protection
– Integumentary system – skin and outgrowths
– Urinary system
– Immune system
– Lymphatic system
1. Reproduction
– Reproductive system
 Homeostasis
• Internal environment of
interstitial fluid and
plasma must be kept
constant
• External environment
changes constantly
• Homeostasis –
maintaining a state of
internal constancy
• Tissues and organs work
together to maintain
homeostasis
• Negative feedback
– Most common
– Action counters an
existing condition
– Sensors monitor
variable
– Effector’s response
counteracts change
• Positive feedback
– Less common
– Amplifies change
– Blood clotting
– Milk secretion
 Integumentary system
• Skin, hair, nails, and several types of glands
• 2 major layers
– Epidermis – outermost layer, stratified squamous
epithelium
• Keratinocytes produce keratin
• Melanocytes produce melanin
– Dermis – dense collagen-rich connective tissue
• Muscles, nerve endings, receptors
• Produces hair or fur from hair follicles
• Glands – sweat, mammary, sebaceous
• Helps maintain homeostasis by
– Body temperature regulation, conserving water,
vitamin D synthesis
 Investigating life: When a chair
becomes a ladder
• Errors during meiosis cause genes to duplicate
• Original gene retains its function
• Duplicate can mutate and perhaps acquire new function
• Did mammals acquire the ability to secrete milk by finding a new
use for an old protein, one required in tooth production?
• Found 12 functional genes encoding calcium-rich proteins in teeth,
milk, and saliva on chromosome 4
• Used DNA sequences from multiple organisms to construct
phylogenetic tree
• “Primordial” gene encoded an enamel matrix protein in a toothed
fish called a conodont
• Gene duplication gave rise to current diversity of milk, saliva, and
tooth proteins in mammals