Convection Process

1
3.0 SYLLABUS CONTENT

3.1` Convection Principles heat transfer coefficient
3.2 Convection boundary layer theory
3.3 Forced convection over exterior surface (laminar
flow)
3.4 Forced convection in turbulent flow (Reynolds
analogy.
3.5 Principle of dynamic similarity applied to forced
convection
3.6 Free convection and laminar profile over vertical
plates
2
Convection Principles
(Nusselt Number)
Nusselt Number
Developed by Wilhelm Nusselt
(1882-1957) from Germany

In convection analysis, it is
common practice to non-
dimensionalized the governing
equations and combine the
variables, which group together in
dimensionless numbers to reduce
the number of variables.

3
(Nusselt Number)
The Nusselt number is a non-dimensionalized h,
defined as:

k
hL
Nu
c
=
L
c
- Characteristic Length
k - Thermal conductivity of fluid
4
(Nusselt Number)
Since:
Heat transfer by conduction occurs when the fluid
is motionless and
Heat transfer by convection occurs when the fluid
involves some motion.
In either case, the heat flux is the rate of heat
transfer per unit time per unit surface area.
L
T
k q
T h q
cond
conv
A
=
A =
5
(Nusselt Number)
Taking the ratio of these two equations:

Thus Nu represents the enhancement of heat transfer through a
fluid layer as a result of convection relative to conduction
across the same fluid layer. The larger Nu, the more effective
the convection.

Nu = 1 for a fluid layer, represents pure conduction.
Nu
k
L h T h
q
q
L
T k
cond
conv
=
=
A
=
A
6

Dynamic viscosity () The shear force per unit area
required to drag on layer of fluid with unit velocity passed
another layer a unit distance away from the fluid.

Kinematic viscosity (v) The ratio of dynamic viscosity
to density.

(Viscosity)
|
.
|
\
|
=
dy
du
t
v =
7
3.2 Convection boundary
layer theory
8
(Velocity Boundary Layer)
Velocity boundary development on a flat plate:

The boundary layer thickness (o) is normally defined
as where:
= u u 99 . 0
9
The dashed line, divides the flow
over the plate into two regions:

Boundary layer region
In which the viscous effects and
velocity changes are significant.

Inviscid flow region
In which the friction effects are
negligible and the velocity
remains constant.

u

y
x
Heated Surface
Boundary
Layer
Inviscid
Flow
10
Flow regions in velocity boundary of a flat plate:
11
Comparison of a laminar and turbulent velocity
boundary layer profile:
12
(Thermal Boundary Layer)
Likewise there is a thermal
boundary layer

No temperature jump condition

Because velocity of the fluid
is zero at the point of contact
with the solid surface, the
fluid and solid surface must
have the same temperature
at the point of contact.
y
x
T

Heated Surface
13
(Thermal Boundary Layer)
Thermal boundary development on a flat plate:

The thickness of the thermal boundary layer (o
t
) at any location
along the surface is defined as the distance from the surface at
which:

o
T
=T-T
s
=0.99(T
-T
s
)
T
s
+0.99(T
-T
s
)
14
(Prandtl Number)
Prandtl Number
Developed by Ludwig Prandtl (1875-1953) of
Germany.

The relative thickness of the velocity and
thermal boundary layers is best described by
a dimensionless Prandtl number (below):
k
C
Heat of y Diffusivit Molecular
Momentum of y Diffusivit Molecular
p
= =
=
o
u
Pr
15
Prandtl Number ?

The Prandtl numbers of gases are about 1, which
indicates that both momentum and heat dissipate
through the fluid at about the same rate.

Heat diffuses very quickly in liquid metals (Pr << 1) and
very slowly in oils (Pr >> 1) relative to momentum.

Consequently the thermal boundary layer is much thicker
for liquid metals and much thinner for oils relative to the
velocity boundary layer,
16
(Reynolds Number)
Reynolds Number
Derived by Osbourne Reynolds (1842-1912)
of Britain

The transition from laminar to turbulent flow
depends on the surface geometry, surface
roughness, free stream velocity, surface
temperature, and type of fluid (among other
things).

However, the flow regime primarily depends
upon the ratio of inertia forces to viscous
forces in a fluid. This is a dimensionless
quantity, known as Reynolds number (Re).
17
(Reynolds Number)
The Reynolds number is defined as:
v
L V L V
Forces Viscous
Forces Inertia
=
= = Re
V upstream velocity
L characteristic length
v = / kinematic viscosity of fluid
18
(Reynolds Number)
A large Re (inertia forces large)
Means that the viscous forces cannot contain random and
rapid fluctuations (turbulent).

A small Re (viscous forces large)
Keeps the fluid in-line (laminar).
The Reynolds number where the flow becomes turbulent is
called the critical Reynolds number (Re
crit
)
v
L V L V
Forces Viscous
Forces Inertia
=
= = Re
19
(Reynolds Number)
For flow over a flat plate, the generally accepted
value of Re
crit
is:

Flat Plate:

where: x
crit
= Distance between the leading edge
of the plate to the transition point
from laminar to turbulent flow takes place.
5
10 5 Re =

=

crit
crit
x u
20
3.3 Forced convection over an
exterior surface
(laminar and turbulent flow)
21
External Flow
The convection equations for an external flow can be
derived from the conservation of mass, conservation
of energy, and the conservation of momentum
equations.

22
External Flow Equations
(Conservation of Mass)
Conservation of Mass
dx
x
u
u
c
c
+
dx
dy
dy
dy
dv
v +
u
v
( )
( )
Area Unit
y
Area Unit
x
dx v m
dy u m
1
1
=
=
23
(Conservation of Mass)
Rate of mass
flow into
control volume
Rate of mass
flow out of
control volume
=
dy dx
y
v
dx v dy dx
x
u
dy u dx v dy u
dx dy
y
v
v dy dx
x
u
u dx v dy u

c
c
+ +
c
c
+ = +
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+ +
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+ = +

0 =
c
c
+
c
c
y
v
x
u
~ 2-D Continuity Equation
24
(Conservation of Momentum)
Conservation of Momentum

ma = Net Force
dx
x
P
P
c
c
+
P
dy
y c
c
+
t
t
t
dx
dy
25
(Conservation of Momentum)
In the x-direction:

In the y-direction:

volume
unit per
force Body
x
forces shear and
viscous of effect Net
force
pressure
Net
du
g
y
u
x
u
x
P
y
u
v
x
u
u +
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c

2
2
2
2

volume
unit per
force Body
y
forces shear and
viscous of effect Net
force
pressure
Net
dv
g
y
v
x
v
y
P
y
v
v
x
v
u +
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c

2
2
2
2
26
(Conservation of Energy)
Conservation of Energy
dx
dy
E
heat out, y
E
mass out, y
E
mass in, y
E
heat in, y
E
mass in, x
E
heat in, x
E
mass out, x
E
heat out, x
0 =
out in
E E

27
(Conservation of Energy)
General 2-D energy equation

For 2-D inviscid flow:
2 2
2
2
2
2
2
2
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
x
v
y
u
y
v
x
u
y
T
x
T
k
y
T
v
x
T
u C
p

|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
2
2
2
2
y
T
x
T
k
y
T
v
x
T
u C
p
28
Convection over a Flat Plate
Consider laminar flow over a flat plat. When viscous
dissipation is negligible, the convection equations
reduce for steady, incompressible laminar flow (with
constant properties) over a flat plate.
x
y
T
, u

u(x,0)= 0
v(x,0)= 0
T(x,0)= T
s
dy
dx
Boundary layer
29
Consider elemental control volume for force balance
in the laminar boundary layer.

Continuity:

Momentum:

Energy:
0 =
c
c
+
c
c
y
v
x
u
2
2
y
u
y
u
v
x
u
u
c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c
v
2
2
y
T
y
T
v
x
T
u
c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c
o
30
Boundary conditions:

At x= 0: u(0,y)= u
, T(0,y)= T

At y= 0: u(x,0)= 0, v(x,0)= 0, T(x,0)= T
s
At y= : u(x,)= u
, T(x,)= T

Define a dimensionless similarity variable:
x
u
y
=

v
q
31
Recall, that the stream function is defined as:

Dependent variable:
x
v
y
u
c
c
=
c
c
=

;
( )
y u
u
x
u
f
q
v
q
32
Therefore:
|
|
.
|
\
|

=
c
c
c
c
=
c
c
=
=
=
c
c
c
c
=
c
c
=
f
d
df
x
u
f
x u
u
dx
df
u
x
u
x x
v
d
df
u
x
u
d
df
u
x
u
y y
u
q
q
v
v v q
q

q v q
v q
q

2
1
2
33
So:
3
3 2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
q v
q v
q
q
c
=
c
c
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
c
c
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
c
c
f d
x
u
y
u
d
f d
x
u
u
y
u
d
f d
x
u
x
u
34
(Momentum Equation)
Substituting these into the momentum equation and simplifying
gives:

A 3
rd
order non-linear differential equation. Therefore the system
of partial differential equations is transformed into a single
ordinary differential equation by use of a similarity variable.
0 2
2
2
3
3
= +
q q d
f d
f
d
f d
EQN 6-49
text
35
(Momentum Equation)
Using the definitions for f and , the boundary equations in
terms of the similarity variables can be found.

( )
1
0
0 0
0
=
=
=
=
=
q
q
q
q
d
df
d
df
f
However, the transformed equation
with its similarity variable cannot be
solved analytically.

Therefore, an alternative solution is
necessary.
36
(Momentum Equation)
The non-dimensional velocity profile can be obtained by
plotting u/u
vs. . The results agree experimentally.

A value of: corresponds to:

Recall that the definition of a velocity boundary layer is when:
992 . 0 = =
u
u
d
df
q
0 . 5 = q
99 . 0 =
u
u
37
(Momentum Equation)
So substituting these values into the definition for , gives the
boundary layer thickness for a flat plate.
v
v
o
v
o
v
q
x u
where
x
x
u
x
u
x
u
y
=

=
=
Re :
Re
0 . 5 0 . 5
5
o q = = y ; 0 . 5
For laminar
flat plate:
EQN 6-51
text
38
Energy Equation
Knowing the velocity profile, we can now solve the energy
equation.

Introduce dimensionless temperature:

Note: both T
s
and T
are constant.
(Energy Equation)
( )
( )
s
s
T T
T y x T
y x
,
, u
39
(Energy Equation)
Substituting into the energy equation gives:

Again using the similarity variable, , so = ()

So the energy equation becomes:

2
2
y y
v
x
u
c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c u
o
u u
x
u
y
=

v
q
2
2
2
2
1
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
|

dy
d
d
d
dy
d
d
d
f
d
df
x
u
dx
d
d
d
d
df
u
q
q
u
o
q
q
u
q
q
v q
q
u
q
40
(Energy Equation)
Since:
x
u
dy
d
x
u
u
y
x
u
y
dx
d
x
u
y
=
|
.
|
\
|
v
q
v
v
v
q
v
q
2
1
2
1
2
3
41
(Energy Equation)
and:
( )
y u d
df
y u
u
x
u
f
q
q
v
q
42
(Energy Equation)
Substituting these in gives:
2
2
2
2
1
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
(
dy
d
d
d
dy
d
d
d
f
d
df
x
u
dx
d
d
d
d
df
u
q
q
u
o
q
q
u
q
q
v q
q
u
q
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|

|
|
.
|
\
|

x
u
d
d
x
u
d
d
y u y u x
u
y
x
u
x
u
u
y
d
d
y u
u
v q
u
o
v q
u q
v
v
v
v
q
u
2
2
2
1
2
43
(Energy Equation)
|
.
|
\
|
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
x
u
d
d
x
u
y u x
u
u x
u
x
u
x
u
u d
d
v q
u
o
v
q v
v
v
v
v
q
u
2
2
1
2
1
2
2
2
1
q
u
o
v q
v v
v
q
u
d
d
u
x
xy x
u
x x
u
u d
d
=
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
44
(Energy Equation)
2
2
2
q
u
o
q v
v
v
v
v
q
u
d
d
y u x
u
u x
u
u
x
d
d
=
(
2
2
Pr
2
q
u q
q
u
o
v
d
d
y u d
d
f
=
(

0 Pr 2
2
2
= +
q
u
q
u
d
d
f
d
d
o
v
= Pr
Prandtl number
EQN 6-58
text
45
(Energy Equation)
A closed form solution cannot be obtained for this boundary
layer problem, and it must be solved numerically.

If this equation is solved for numerous values of Pr, then for
Pr > 0.6, the non-dimensional temperature gradient at the
surface is found to be (reference Table 6-3, p. 378 in text):
3
1
Pr 332 . 0
0
=
= q
q
u
d
d
46
(Energy Equation)
The temperature gradient at the surface is:

Since: then:

Therefore substituting these values in gives:
( ) ( )
0 0 0 0 = =
=
c
c
c
c
=
c
c
=
c
c
y
s
y
s
y
y
T T
y
T T
y
T q
q
u u
q
x
u
y
=
c
c

v
q
x
u
y
=

v
q
( )
x
u
T T
y
T
s
y

=
c
c

=
v
3
1
Pr 332 . 0
0
47
(Energy Equation)
Therefore the local convection coefficient and Nusselt number
become:
( )
( ) | |
=
c
c
=

T T
T T k
T T
k
T T
q
h
s
x
u
s
s
y
y
T
s
s
x
v
3
1
Pr 332 . 0
0
x
u
k h
x
=

v
3
1
Pr 332 . 0
48
The local Nusselt number is the dimensionless temperature
gradient at the surface. This is defined as:

Thus for Pr > 0.6, the local Nusselt number for laminar flow is:
(Laminar Flow)
k
x h
Nu
x
x

=
2
1
3
1
Re Pr 332 . 0 =
x
Nu
49
(Laminar Flow)
The local friction coefficient (C
Fx
) can also be determined.
Since the wall shear stress is:

From Table 6-3 (pp. 378 in text) this is found to be:
0
2
2
0 =
=
c
c
=
q
q v
t
d
f d
x
u
u
y
u
y
wall
x
wall
u
Re
332 . 0
2

=

t
50
51
(Laminar Flow)
Therefore the local skin friction coefficient is:
2
1
Re 664 . 0
2
2
,

=
x
wall
x F
u
C
t
2
,
2
1
= u C
x F wall
t
52
(Laminar Flow)
The average heat transfer coefficient over the entire plate can be
obtained by integrating over its length:

dx h
L
h
L
x
=
}
0
1
( )
L
k
L u
L
k
x
u
L
k
dx
x
u
L
k
h
L
L
2
1
3
1
3
1
3
1
3
1
Re Pr 664 . 0
Pr 664 . 0
2
Pr 332 . 0
Pr 332 . 0
0
0

=

=

=
}
v
v
v
53
(Laminar Flow)
So the average Nusselt number for laminar flow over
the entire plate is:
3
1
Pr Re 664 . 0
5 . 0
=
=
L
k
L h
Nu
54
(Laminar Flow)
Solving numerically for temperature profile for
different Prandtl numbers, and using the definition of
the thermal boundary layer, it is determined that for
laminar flow over a flat plate:
3
1
3
1
Pr Pr
026 . 1

~ = o
o
o
t
55
(Example 3.1)
Example 3.1a Calculate the heat transfer and the
thermal boundary layer thickness of the way along
a flat plate that is 50 m long. Liquid (T
sat
= 40 C)
flows over it at 4 m/s. The plate is kept at a surface
temperature (T
s
= 80 C).
50 m
x
y
40 C
4 m/s
T
s
= 80C
56
(Example 3.1)
The first step is to calculate the mean film temperature of the
fluid flowing along the plate.

This is just the average of the surface temperature and the fluid
bulk temperature.
C
C C T T
T
s
film
=
+
=
+
=

60
2
40 80
2
50 m
x
y
80 C
40 C
57
(Example 3.1)
For liquid water at 60 C from Table
50 m
x
y
80 C
40 C
99 . 2 Pr
654 . 0
67 . 4
3 . 983
3
=
=
=
=

C m
W
s m
kg
m
kg
k
58
(Example 3.1)
First calculate the Reynolds number to determine whether the
flow is laminar or turbulent.

Since Re < Re
crit
= 5x10
5
or 500,000 ~ Flow is laminar
Therefore:
( ) ( ) ( )
8 . 527 , 10
67 . 4
50 4 3 . 983
Re
4
1
3
=

=

=
s m
kg
s
m
m
kg
m
x u
( )
( ) ( )
m
m
m
x
t
m
412 . 0
026 . 1
99 . 2 609 . 0
026 . 1
Pr
609 . 0
8 . 527 , 10
5
Re
5
3
1
3
1
4
50
=
=
=
=

o
o
o
59
(Example 3.1)
Example 3.1b Now calculate the convective heat transfer.
First we must check to see whether the entire plate is in a
laminar boundary layer or not.

Since Re < Re
crit
= 5x10
5
or 500,000 ~ Flow is laminar over the
entire plate
( ) ( ) ( )
3 . 111 , 42
67 . 4
50 4 3 . 983
Re
3
=

=

=
s m
kg
s
m
m
kg
m
L u
60
(Example 3.1)
Therefore we can use the following equation to find h:
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
C m
W
s m
kg
m
kg
s
m
C m
W
m
x
u
k
x
u
k h

=
2
3
3
1
3
1
3
1
619 . 0
50 67 . 4
3 . 983 4
654 . 0 99 . 2 332 . 0
Pr 332 . 0 Pr 332 . 0

v
61
(Example 3.1)
Using this h, we can now find the convection heat transfer:
( ) ( )
2
2
8 . 24
40 80 619 . 0
) (
m
W
C m
W
s
C C
T T h q
=
=
=

62
(Turbulent and Mixed Flows)
Turbulent
Completely Turbulent Flow

Mixed Laminar/Turbulent Flow
63
64
(Turbulent and Mixed Flows)
Note: if it had been found that the boundary layer was not
completely laminar another equation for h could have been
used instead.

For turbulent flow (all over the plate):

For a mixed combination of laminar and turbulent flow over the
plate:
7 5
10 Re 10 5
60 Pr 6 . 0
s s
s s
3
1
Pr Re 037 . 0
8 . 0
=
L
Nu
( )
3
1
Pr 871 Re 037 . 0
8 . 0
=
L
Nu
7 5
10 Re 10 5
60 Pr 6 . 0
s s
s s
L
65
Example 3.2 Oil flows over a 40-m long heated plate at free
stream conditions of 5 m/s and 25C. If the plate is held at 45C.

a) Determine the velocity and thermal boundary layer
thicknesses at the middle of the plate.
b) Calculate the distance where the laminar change to
turbulence flow
c) Calculate the total convection heat transfer for a 1-m
width.
(Example 3.2)
40 m
u
= 5 m/s
T
= 25C
T
s
= 45C
66
(Example 3.2)
First calculate the film temperature (T
f
)

From Tables for oil at 35C, the fluid properties are:
C
C C T T
T
s
film
=
+
=
+
=

35
2
45 25
2
3
2
255 , 1
2864 . 0
10 5 . 3
711 , 3 Pr
4
m
kg
C m
W
s
m
k
=
=
=
=

v
67
(Example 3.2)
a) At the middle of the plate:

Since the critical Reynolds number is 5x10
5
, then:

The flow at the mid-point of the plate is laminar.
m
m
x 20
2
40
= =
( ) ( )
5
4
int
10 86 . 2
10 5 . 3
20 5
Re
2
=
s
m
s
m
po
mid
m x u
v
crit
po
mid
Re Re
int
<<
68
(Example 3.2)
The hydrodynamic (or velocity) boundary layer is:

The thermal boundary layer is:
( )
cm or m
m x
x
7 . 18 187 . 0
10 86 . 2
20 5
Re
5
5
20
=
=
=
o
( ) mm or m
m
t
8 . 11 0118 . 0 711 , 3
026 . 1
187 . 0
Pr
026 . 1
3
1
3
1
= =
=
o
o
69
(Example 3.2)
b) At the end of the plate:

Since Re > Re
crit
the flow is turbulent at the end
The critical distance (transition point from laminar to
turbulent is:

( ) ( )
5
4
10 714 . 5
10 5 . 3
40 5
Re
2
=
s
m
s
m
end
m L u
v
( ) ( )
m
u
x
s
m
s
m
crit
crit
35
5
10 5 . 3 10 5
Re
2
4 5
=

=
v
70
(Example 3.2)
c) Using the mixed Nu equation for a flat plate:
( )
( ) | | ( )
7 . 600 , 9
711 , 3 871 10 71 . 5 037 . 0
Pr 871 Re 037 . 0
3
1
3
1
8 . 0
5
8 . 0
=
=
=
L
Nu
( ) ( )
C m
W C m
W
m
L
k Nu
h

=
=
2
7 . 68
40
2864 . 0 7 . 600 , 9
71
(Example 3.2)
The total heat transfer per is:
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
W
C C m m
T T A h Q
C m
W
s s
960 , 54
25 45 1 40 7 . 68
2
=
=
=

72
Example 7-1 7-2, 7-3 pp 404-407
73
Forced Convection
(on Cylinders and Spheres)
Flows across cylinders and
spheres, in general, involve
flow separation which is
difficult to handle analytically.

Thus these must be studied
empirically or experimentally

Several correlations have
been developed for the heat
transfer coefficient (h).
74
Forced Convection
(on Cylinders and Spheres)
Churchill and Bernstein developed this empirical
equation for flow over a cylinder (Eqn. 7-35 in text):

Whitaker developed this empirical equation for flow
over a sphere (Eqn. 7-36 in text):
( ) | |
5
4
8
5
4
1
3
2
3
1
2
1
000 , 282
Re
1
1
Pr Re 62 . 0
3 . 0
Pr
4 . 0
(
(
|
.
|
\
|
+
+

+ = =
k
hD
Nu
cyl
| |
4
1
3
2
2
1
4 . 0
Pr Re 06 . 0 Re 4 . 0 2
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ + = =

s
sph
k
hD
Nu
75
Forced Convection
(over Circular and Non-Circular Cylinders)
Additionally the following empirical correlations have been made
by Zukauskas and Jakob for the average Nusselt number for flow
over circular and non-circular cylinders (Table 7-1 in text):
76
Forced Convection
(over Circular and Non-Circular Cylinders)
77
Forced Convection
(Example 3.3)
Example 3.3 A long 10-cm diameter hexagonal steam pipe
whose external surface temperature is 110C passes through
some open area that is not protected against the wind.
Determine the rate of heat loss when the air is at 1 atm
pressure and 10C and the wind is blowing across a 1-m length
of pipe at a velocity of 8 m/s.
V

= 8 m/s
T
= 10C
T
s
=110C
10 cm
1 m
78
Forced Convection
(Example 3.3)
The properties of air at the average film temperature
of:

can be found from Table A-15 as:
C
C C T T
T
s
film
=
+
=
+
=

60
2
10 110
2
s
m
C m
W
k
2
5
10 896 . 1
7202 . 0 Pr ; 02808 . 0

=
= =
v
79
Forced Convection
(Example 3.3)
The Reynolds number is:

The Nusselt number can be determined from Table 7-1
in the text book:
( ) ( )
4
5
10 219 . 4
10 896 . 1
10 . 0 8
Re
2
=
s
m
s
m
m D V
v
( ) ( )
5 . 122
7202 . 0 10 219 . 4 153 . 0
Pr Re 153 . 0
3
1
3
1
638 . 0
4
638 . 0
=
=
= Nu
80
Forced Convection
(Example 3.3)
Therefore:

The surface area of the hexagon is:
( )
C m
W C m
W
m
Nu
D
k
h

= =
=
2
4 . 34 5 . 122
10 . 0
02808 . 0
( )
( ) ( )
( )
2
346 . 0
60 sin
1 10 . 0 3
60 sin 2
6
m
m m
L
D
A
s
=

=

=
D/2
60
81
Forced Convection
(Example 3.3)
Therefore, the heat transfer is:
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
W
C C m
T T A h Q
C m
W
s s
7 . 191 , 1
10 110 346 . 0 4 . 34
2
2
=
=
=

82
Example 7-5 pp 414
83
3.4 Principle of dynamic similarity
and dimensional analysis
(applied to forced convection)
84
Non-dimensionalized
convection equations
The continuity , momentum, and energy equations for steady,
incompressible, laminar flow of a fluid with constant properties
can be non-dimensionalized by dividing all the dependent and
independent variables, as follows:

Note: the asterisks denote non-dimensional variables.
s
s
T T
T T
T
V
P
P
V
v
v
V
u
u
L
y
y
L
x
x
=
= =
= =

*
2
*
* *
* *
;
;
; ;
Free stream velocity

Free stream temperature
Surface temperature
85
Non-dimensionalized
Introducing these variables the equations become:

Continuity:

Momentum:

Energy:
0
*
*
*
*
=
c
c
+
c
c
y
v
x
u
*
*
2 *
* 2
*
*
*
*
*
*
Re
1
dx
dP
y
u
y
u
v
x
u
u
L

c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c
2 *
2
*
*
*
*
*
*
Pr Re
1
y
T
y
T
v
x
T
u
L
c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c
86
Non-dimensionalized
For a plate, the boundary conditions are:
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) 1 , 1 ,
0 0 , 0 0 ,
1 , 0 0 0 , 1 , 0
* * * *
* * * *
* * * * * *
= =
= =
= = =
x T x u
x T x u
y T x v y u
x*
y*
T
s
u
, T

87
Similarity
Where:

For a given geometry, the solutions of problems with
the same Re and Nu are similar, thus Re and Nu are
called similarity parameters.

Two physical phenomena are similar if they have the
same dimensionless forms of the governing
differential equations and boundary conditions.
o
v
v
=
=

Pr Re
L V
L
88
Similarity
A major advantage in non-dimensionalizing is the
significant reduction in the number of similarity
parameters.

Original equations have 6 parameters: (L, V
, T,
T
s
, a, and n)

The non-dimensionalized equations have only 2
parameters (Re
L
and Pr).
89
Similarity
For a given geometry, problems that have the same
values of similarity parameters (Re
L
and Pr) have
identical solutions.

Fig 6-28 (text)
90
Similarity
Example: Determining the convection heat transfer
coefficient (h) for flow over a given surface will
require numerical solutions or experiments with
several sets of:
Velocities (V
)
Surface lengths (L)
Wall temperatures (T
s
)
Free stream temperatures (T
).

The same information can be determined with far
fewer experiments or investigations by grouping the
data into the dimensionless:

Reynolds number (Re)
Prantdl number (Pr)

91
Similarity
Fig 6-29 (text)
92
Similarity
Another advantage is that data from a large group of
experiments can be conveniently reported in the
terms of the similarity parameters.
93
3.5 Reynolds Analogy
94
Forced Convection
(Drag Force)
95
Forced Convection
(Reynolds Analogy)
In forced convection analysis, we are primarily
interested in the determination of quantities of:

The coefficient of friction (C
F
) (to calculate the
shear stress at the wall)

Nusselt number (Nu) ( to calculate the heat
transfer rates).
Therefore, it is desirable to have a relation between
C
F
and Nu, so that we can calculate one when the
other is available.
96
Forced Convection
(Reynolds Analogy)
Since:

The shear stress at the surface becomes:
( )
L
y x f u Re , ,
* *
1
*
=
( )
L
y y
s
x f
L
V
y
u
L
V
y
u
Re ,
*
2
0
*
*
0
*
=
c
c
=
c
c
=

t
97
Forced Convection
(Reynolds Analogy)
( )
( )
L
L
L
y
V
y
y
u
L
V
V
s
x f
x f
x f
y
u
C
Re ,
Re ,
Re
2
Re
2
*
3
*
2
0 *
*
*
2
0 *
2
,
2
*
*
2
=
=
c
c
=
= =
=
=
c
c
t
Substituting this into its definition gives the local
friction coefficient:
98
Forced Convection
(Reynolds Analogy)
Similarly, solving the energy equation for the
dimensionless temperature (T*) for a given geometry
gives:

Using this definition, the convection heat transfer
coefficient (h) becomes:
( ) Pr , Re , ,
* *
1
*
L
y x g T =
=
c
c
=
T T
k
h
s
y
y
T
0
99
Forced Convection
(Reynolds Analogy)
Since:

Then:
local for
s
s
x
y
L
y
y
T T
T T
T = =
* *
| | ( )
( )
( )
*
*
*
*
y
T
x
T T
x y
T T T T
y
T
s s s
c
c
=
c
+ c
=
c
c

100
Forced Convection
(Reynolds Analogy)
Therefore:
( )
( )
0 *
*
*
0 *
*
*
=
=
c
c
=
c
c

=
y
y
s
s
y
T
L
k
y
T
T T x
T T k
h
101
Substituting this into the local Nusselt number
equation gives:

We previously determined that:

Therefore:
0 *
*
*
0 *
*
*
= =
c
c
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
=
=
y
h
y
x
y
T
y
T
x
k
k
x
k
x h
Nu

Forced Convection
(Reynolds Analogy)
( ) Pr , Re , ,
* *
1
*
L
y x g T =
( ) Pr , Re ,
*
2
0 *
*
*
L
y
x
x g
y
T
Nu =
c
c
=
=
102
Forced Convection
(Reynolds Analogy)
Note: the Nusselt number is equivalent to the
dimensionless temperature gradient at the surface, and
this is why it is sometimes called the dimensionless heat
transfer coefficient (h).
Fig 6.30 (text)
103
Forced Convection
(Reynolds Analogy)
The average friction and heat transfer coefficients
are determined by integrating the local C
F,x
and Nu
x

over the surface of the given body with respect to x*
(from 0 to 0.1), which removes the dependence on x*
and thus gives:

These relations allow experimenters to study a
problem with a minimum amount of experiments and
report their results in terms of just Re and Pr.
( ) ( ) Pr , Re Re
3 4 L L F
g Nu and f C = =
104
Forced Convection
(Reynolds Analogy)
The experimental data for heat transfer is often
represented (with reasonable accuracy) by a simple
power law relation of the form:

Where m and n are constant exponents (normally between 0
and 1), and the value of C depends on geometry.
n m
L
C Nu Pr Re =
105
Forced Convection
(Reynolds Analogy)
Summary, so far (Fig 6-31 in text book):
106
Forced Convection
(Reynolds Analogy)
Now if we simplify the momentum and energy
equations by assuming:
Pr = 1 (which is approximately true for gases)

(true when u = u = V = constant)

0
*
*
=
c
c
x
P
For Pr = 1, the
thermal and
velocity boundary
layers coincide
107
Forced Convection
(Reynolds Analogy)
The equations then become:

Momentum:

Energy:

Note: These two equations are exactly in the same
form for u* and T*.
2 *
* 2
*
*
*
*
*
*
2 *
* 2
*
*
*
*
*
*
Re
1
Re
1
y
T
y
T
v
x
T
u
y
u
y
u
v
x
u
u
L
L
c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c
c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c
108
Since the boundary conditions are also identical:

Recall:

Then:
Forced Convection
(Reynolds Analogy)
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) 1 , 1 ,
0 0 , 0 0 ,
1 , 0 1 , 0
* * * *
* * * *
* * * *
= =
= =
= =
x T x u
x T x u
y T y u
0 *
*
*
0 *
*
*
= =
c
c
=
c
c
y y
y
T
y
u
Equation
*
109
Forced Convection
(Reynolds Analogy)
Since as previously derived:

Rearranging these equations gives:

*
*
*
*
Re
2
y
T
L
k
h and
y
u
C
F
c
c
=
c
c
=
x
y
x F
y
Nu
k
L h
y
T
and
C
y
u
=
=
c
c
=
c
c
= = 0 *
*
*
,
0 *
*
*
2
Re
110
Forced Convection
(Reynolds Analogy)
Therefore substituting these values into Equation

*
gives:

0 *
*
*
0 *
*
*
= =
c
c
=
c
c
y y
y
T
y
u
2
2
Re
,
,
x F
x
x F
x
C
St
or
C
Nu
=
=
Reynolds Analogy for
Pr = 1
111
Forced Convection
(Stanton Number)
Reynolds Analogy can also be
expressed in terms of the Stanton
number (St).

This was derived by Sir Thomas
Edward Stanton (1865-1931) from
England

Pr Re
=

=
Nu
V C
h
St
P
112
Forced Convection
(Reynolds Analogy)
Reynolds Analogy is important because it allows us
to determine the heat transfer coefficient (h) for fluids
where Pr = 1, from knowledge of the friction
coefficient (which is easier to measure).

113
Forced Convection
(Chilton-Colburn Analogy)
However, the Reynolds number is of limited use
because of the restrictions:

Pr = 1

Therefore it is desirable to have an analogy that is
applicable over a wide range of Pr.

This is done by adding a Prandtl number correction.
0
*
*
=
c
c
x
P
114
Forced Convection
Recall as previously derived:

Taking their ratio and rearranging give the relation
known as the Chilton-Colburn analogy or the modified
Reynold's analogy:
2
1
3
1
2
1
Re Pr 332 . 0 Re 664 . 0
, x x x x F
Nu and C = =

H L x
x F
j Nu
C
= =
1 ,
Re Pr
2
3
1
3
2
Pr
2
,

= =
V C
h
C
j
p
x
x F
H
For 0.6 < Pr < 60

Colburn j-factor
115
Forced Convection
The Chilton-Colburn Analogy is derived using:
Laminar flow
Over a flat plate ( )

However, experimental studies however show that it is also
approximately applicable to turbulent flow over a surface in
the presence of pressure gradients.

For laminar flow it is not applicable unless it is a flat plate,
therefore it cannot be applied to laminar flow in a pipe.

Also the analogy above can be used for local or average
quantities.
0 =
c
c
x
P
116
Forced Convection
(Example 3.4)
Example 3.4 Laminar flow profile
over a vertical plate. A 2 x 3 m plate
is suspended in a room and subject
to air flow parallel to its surfaces
along its 3 m side. The total drag
force acting on the plate is 0.86 N.
Determine the average heat transfer
coefficient (h) for the plate:
The properties of air at 1 atm (Table A-15 in
text book) at T
film
= 20C:
3 m
2 m
Air Flow
T
= 15C
V

= 7 m/s
7309 . 0 Pr
007 . 1 ; 204 . 1
3
=
= =
kg
kJ
C
m
kg
p
T
s
=25C
117
Forced Convection
(Example 3.4)
Set L= 3 m ~ Characteristic length

Since both sides of the plate are exposed to the air (and
considering the thickness negligibly small) the total surface area
is:

( ) ( )
2
12 3 2 2
2
m m m
L w A
s
= =
=
118
For all flat plates:

Drag = Friction Force

Therefore:

Forced Convection
(Example 3.4)
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
00243 . 0
7 12 204 . 1
86 . 0 2 2
2
2
2
3
=

=

=
s
m
m
kg
s
F
m
N
V A
D
C
2
2
1
= = V A C D F
s F friction

119
Forced Convection
(Example 3.4)
Then from the modified Reynolds analogy (Chilton-
Colburn) the average heat transfer coefficient (h) can
be calculated:

( ) ( ) ( )
C m
W
C kg
J
s
m
m
kg
p
F
C V
C
h

=

=

=
2
3
2
3
3
2
7 . 12
7309 . 0
1007 7 204 . 1
2
00243 . 0
Pr
2

120
3.6 Convection in an
internal flow
121
Internal Flow
Internal flow relates to flow through fixed conduits
such as pipes or ducts.
122
Internal Flow
(Non-Circular Tubes)
For flow through non-
circular tubes Re and Nu,
are based on the hydraulic
diameter D
h
.

Where p is the perimeter, V
m
is
the mean velocity, and A
c
is the
cross-sectional area.
h m
c
h
D V
p
A
D

=
=
Re
4
123
Internal Flow
(Mean Velocity)
Because the velocity varies over the cross-section it
is necessary to work with a mean velocity (V
m
) when
dealing with internal flows.
c
m
m c
A
m
V
V A m
=
=
124
Internal Flow
(Circular Tubes)
In a circular tube:

Re < 2,300 laminar flow
2,300 < Re < 10,000 transitional flow
Re > 10,000 turbulent flow
t
t
D V
D
D p
A
D
m
D
c
h
=
=
=
Re
4 4
4
2
125
Internal Flow
(Entrance Region)
126
Internal Flow Equations
(Example 3.5)
Example 3.5 - Temperature rise of oil in a bearing
(a) Find the temperature and velocity distributions
(b) Find the maximum temperature in the oil
(c) Find the maximum heat flux in the oil
u(y)
L= 2 mm
V= 12 m/s
Upper plate moving
Oil
k= 0.145 W/(mK)
= 0.8 kg/(ms)
Lower plate stationary
127
(Example 3.5)
Assumptions:
Steady operating conditions
Oil is incompressible with constant properties
Body forces such as gravity are negligible
The plates are large, so no variation in the z-direction

u(y)
L= 2 mm
V= 12 m/s
Upper plate moving
Oil
k= 0.145 W/(mK)
= 0.8 kg/(ms)
128
(Example 3.5)
(a) Find the temperature and velocity distributions
Solution:
Flow only in the x-direction v = 0

Continuity Equation:

The x-component of velocity does not change. Since also, the
flow is maintained by the upper plate and not the pressure gradient.
) (
0
0
y u u
x
u
y
v
x
u
=
=
c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c
0
0 =
c
c
x
P
129
(Example 3.5)
x-momentum equation:

This is a 2
nd
order differential equation. So integrating twice
gives:
0
0
0 0
0
x
g
x
P
y
u
x
u
y
v
v
x
u
u +
c
c
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
2
2
2
2
0
2
2
=
c
c
y
u
2 1
C y C u + =
130
(Example 3.5)
The boundary conditions are:

u(0)= 0
u(L)= V= 12 m/s

Using these boundary conditions to solve for the constants C
1
and C
2
gives:
( )
0
0 0
2
2 1
=
+ =
C
C C
( )
L
V
C
L C V
=
+ =
1
1
0
131
(Example 3.5)
Therefore the equation becomes:

Frictional heating due to viscous dissipation in this case is
significant because of the high viscosity of oil and large plate
velocity. The plates are isothermal and there is no change in
flow direction, so the temperature changes with y only T= T(y).
V
L
y
u =
132
0 0
0 0
0
(Example 3.5)
So the energy equation for this system is:
2
2
2
0
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
=
y
u
y
T
k
0
c
c
+
c
c
+
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
2 2
2
2
2
2
2
2
x
v
y
u
y
v
x
u
y
T
x
T
k
y
T
v
x
T
u C
p
133
(Example 3.5)
2
2
2
|
.
|
\
|
=
c
c
L
V
y
T
k
Since:

Therefore the equation becomes:
L
V
y
u
V
L
y
u
=
c
c
=
134
(Example 3.5)
Now integrating the equation twice:

Applying boundary conditions:

T(0) = T
0

T(L) = T
0

4 3
2
2
C y C V
L
y
k
T + +
|
.
|
\
|
=

4 0
: 0 C T y = =
2
3
0 3
2
0
2
2
:
V
kL
C
T L C V
L
L
k
T L y
=
+ +
|
.
|
\
|
= =
135
(Example 3.5)
Substituting these constants in to the equation gives:
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
+
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
2
2 2
0
0
2 2
2
2
2
2 2
L
y
L
y
k
V
T
T V
kL
y
V
L
y
k
T

136
(Example 3.5)
(b) Find the maximum temperature in the oil
The temperature gradient is found by differentiating T(y) with
respect to y.

Now to find the maximum temperature, maximize T by setting
the above equation equal to 0.
0 2 1
2
2
=
|
.
|
\
|

=
c
c
L
y
kL
V
y
T
m
m L
y
L
y
001 . 0
2
002 . 0
2
2 1
= = =
=
137
(Example 3.5)
This means that the maximum temperature will occur at the mid-
plane (y= 1 mm), which is not surprising since both planes are
maintained at the same temperature.

The maximum temperature at y= 1 mm is:
( )
( ) ( )
C
W
C
k
V
T
L L k
V
T T
s
m N
C m
W
s
m
m
s N
L L
=
|
|
.
|
\
|

+ =
+ =
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
119
1
1
145 . 0 8
12 8 . 0
20
8
2
2
2
0
2
2
2 2
2
0 max
2
138
(Example 3.5)
(c) Find the maximum heat flux in the oil
The heat flux at the plates is determined from the definition of a
heat flux.

( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
2
2
2
2
0
0
800 , 28
1
1
002 . 0 2
12 8 . 0
2
2 1
2
2
m
W
W
m L
V
L
y
kL
V
k
dy
dT
k q
s
m N
s
m
m
s N
y
=
=
|
.
|
\
|

= =
139
(Example 3.5)
As a check, we can also calculate the heat flux at y= L (should
be equal but opposite sign).
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
2
2
2
2
800 , 28
1
1
002 . 0 2
12 8 . 0
2
2 1
2
2
m
W
W
m L
V
L
L
kL
V
k
dy
dT
k q
s
m N
s
m
m
s N
L y
L
+ =

+ =
+ =
|
.
|
\
|

= =
Correct !
140
(Example 3.5)
Discussion of example

A temperature rise of 99C confirms that viscous dissipation is
very significant
T=119C
L= 2 mm
V= 12 m/s
Upper plate moving
T=20C
T=20C
141
(Example 3.5)
Discussion of example

Heat flux is equivalent to the mechanical energy rate of
dissipation. Therefore, mechanical energy is being converted
into thermal energy to overcome friction in oil. This accounts for
the temperature flux.
L= 2 mm
V= 12 m/s
2
8 . 28
m
kW
q =
'
2
8 . 28
m
kW
q + =
'
142
3.7 Free (natural) convection
143
Free Convection
Hot air rises due to the buoyancy
effect.

This causes fluid motion
(possibly in a circulating pattern)
that causes natural or free
convection
Warm air
Cold
can
Cold air
Heat
Transfer
144
Free Convection
(Volume Expansion Coefficient)
In heat transfer, the primary variable is the
temperature, so it is desirable to express the net
buoyancy force in terms of a temperature difference.

This requires knowledge of a property that represents the
variation of the density of a fluid with temperature at constant
pressure.

This is called the volume expansion coefficient () which is
defined as:
P P
T T
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
=
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
=

v
v
|
1 1
145
Free Convection
In natural convection studies, the condition of the fluid
sufficiently far from the hot or cold surface is indicated by the
subscript to indicate that the presence of the surface is not
felt.

In such cases, can be expressed approximately by replacing
the differential equations by differences, such as:
( )
( ) T T T
=
A
A
=
|
1 1
( )

= T T |
146
Free Convection
For an ideal gas:

Thus for an ideal gas the discharge coefficient
becomes:
T R
P
=
T T T
RT
P
RT
P
P
1 1 1
=
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
=

|
147
Free Convection
(Grashof Number)
The velocity and temperature for natural
convection over a vertical plate are
shown in the figure.

As in forced convection, the
boundary layer thickness increases
in the flow direction

Unlike forced convection, the fluid
velocity (u) is 0 at the outer edge of
the boundary layer as well as the
surface of the plate.
This is expected since the fluid
beyond the boundary layer is
motionless.
148
Free Convection
(Grashof Number)
Recall that the x-momentum equations is:

Now the momentum equation outside the boundary layer can be
obtained from this relation as a special case by setting u = 0,
giving:
g
x
P
y
u
y
u
v
x
u
u
c
c
c
c
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
2
2
g
x
P
=
c
c

149
Free Convection
(Grashof Number)
Since:

Then the momentum equation becomes:
( ) ( )
g
x
P
x
P
x P x P P
=
c
c
=
c
c
= =
( )
( )
( )
+
c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
T T g
y
u
y
v
v
x
u
u
T T g
y
u
y
v
v
x
u
u
g
y
u
y
v
v
x
u
u
| v
|

2
2
2
2
2
2
EQN 9-13
in text
150
Free Convection
(Grashof Number)
If we now non-dimensionalize this x-momentum
equation, we get:
( )
2 *
* 2
2
*
2
3
*
*
*
*
*
*
Re
1
Re y
u T L T T g
y
u
v
x
u
u
L L
c s
c
c
+
(

=
c
c
+
c
c

v
|
Grashof Number
151
The Grashof number is derived by
Franz Grashof (1826-1893) from
Germany.

Free Convection
(Grashof Number)
( )
2
3
v
|
c s
L
L T T g
Gr

=

152
Free Convection
(Grashof Number)
Gr is a measure of the relative
magnitudes of the buoyancy force
and the opposing viscous force
acting on the fluid

153
Free Convection
(Raleigh Number)
Lord Raleigh (1842-1919) from
England derived the Raleigh Number
Pr =Gr Ra
( )
Pr
2
3

=

v
|
c s
L
L T T g
Ra
154
Free Convection
(Example 3.6)
Example 3.6 A 6-m long section of 8-cm diameter
horizontal hot water pipe passes through a large
room. The pipe surface temperature is 70 C.
Determine the heat loss from the pipe by natural
convection.
D= 8 cm
L= 6 m
T
s
= 70 C
T
= 20 C
155
Free Convection
(Example 3.6)
Assume:
Steady operating conditions
Air is an ideal gas
The local atmospheric pressure is 1 atm

From Table A-15, the properties of air are:
7241 . 0 Pr ; 10 749 . 1 ; 02699 . 0
sec
5
2
= = =

m
C m
W
k v
( )
C
C C T T
T
s
film
=
+
=
+
=

45
2
20 70
2
156
Free Convection
(Example 3.6)
The volumetric expansion coefficient () is:

The characteristic length is the outer diameter of the
pipe:
K C T
f
318
1
273 45
1 1
=
+
= = |
m D L
c
08 . 0 = =
157
Free Convection
(Example 3.6)
Therefore the Raleigh Number is:
( )
( ) ( ) | | ( ) ( )
( )
6
2
5
3
318
1
2
3
10 869 . 1
10 749 . 1
7241 . 0 08 . 0 293 343 81 . 9
Pr
2
2
=

=
s
m
K
s
m
s
D
m K K
D T T g
Ra
v
|
158
Free Convection
(Example 3.6)
Table 9-1 in the text book gives average Nusselt
numbers for natural convection over surfaces.

For a horizontal cylinder:
159
Free Convection
(Example 3.6)
Thus Nu is:
( )
4 . 17
7241 . 0
559 . 0
1
10 869 . 1 387 . 0
60 . 0
Pr
559 . 0
1
387 . 0
60 . 0
2
6
2
27
8
16
9
6
1
27
8
16
9
6
1
=
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
|
.
|
\
|
+

+ =
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
|
.
|
\
|
+
+ =
D
D
Ra
Nu
160
Free Convection
(Example 3.6)
Then:

The surface area of the cylinder is:
( )
( )
( )
C m
W C m
W
m
Nu
D
k
h

= = =
2
869 . 5 4 . 17
08 . 0
02699 . 0
( ) ( )
2
508 . 1 6 08 . 0 m m m
L D A
s
= =
=
t
t
161
Free Convection
(Example 3.6)
Therefore the heat transfer is:
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
W
C C m
T T A h Q
C m
W
s s
5 . 442
20 70 508 . 1 869 . 5
2
=
=
=

162
End Of Convection Section C
C

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3.0 SYLLABUS CONTENT

vs. . The results agree experimentally.

Free stream velocity

For 0.6 < Pr < 60

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