Eulogio T. Catalan, Jr.

, MBA
CHAPTER 1
SETS AND THE REAL
NUMBERS
DEFINITION, SET NOTATION, AND
OPERATIONS
SET a well-defined collection of objects, concrete or
abstract of any kind.

Note:
a)well-defined means that there is a common
characteristic of such elements to enable us to
say whether they belong to the set or not.
b) The members of the set do not necessarily have to
be concrete, as in ideas, concepts, or notions.
c) While set is aggregate, a collection, or a group, it is
possible that it has no members,
d) We write the elements of a set only once.
Real Numbers are just numbers like:
1 12.38 -0.8625 3/4 2 1998
In fact:
Nearly any number you can think of is a Real
Number
Real Numbers include:
Whole Numbers (like 0,1,2,3,4, etc)
Rational Numbers (like 3/4, 0.125, 0.333..., 1.1,
etc )
Irrational Numbers (like , 3, etc )
Real Numbers can also be positive, negative or zero.

So ... what is NOT a Real Number?
-1 (the square root of minus 1) is not a Real
Number, it is an Imaginary Number
Infinity is not a Real Number
And there are also some special numbers that
mathematicians play with that are not Real Numbers
Why are they called "Real" Numbers?
Because they are not Imaginary Numbers.
The Real Numbers did not have a name before
Imaginary Numbers were thought of. They got called
"Real" because they were not Imaginary. That is the
actual answer!


The Real Number Line
The Real Number Line is like an actual geometric line.
A point is chosen on the line to be the "origin",
points to the right will be positive, and points to the
left will be negative.




A distance is chosen to be "1", and whole numbers can
then be marked off: {1,2,3,...}, and also in the negative
direction: {-1,-2,-3, ...}

BASIC NOTATIONS
A, B, ..., Z - denote a set
- is an element of
C - is a subset of
= - is equal to
- is equivalent to
- null or empty set
U - Universal Set
n(A) - the cardinal number of set A

TWO METHODS OF WRITING
SETS





1. Roster Method The elements of the set
are enumerated and separated by a comma
2. Rule Method A descriptive phrase is
used to describe the elements of the set.

TWO METHODS OF WRITING
SETS





Roster Method
Rule Method

M = { 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 }
P = { x/x is a planet in the solar system }
Cardinal Number
The cardinal number of a finite set is the number of
elements in the set. For a set A the symbol for the
cardinality is n(A), which is read as n of A.

For example, the set R = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} has a cardinal
number of 5 since it has 5 elements. This could also be
stated by saying the cardinality of set R is 5.
Finite and Infinite Sets
If a set has no elements or a specific natural number
of elements, then it is called a finite set. A set that is
not a finite set is called an infinite set.
The set {p, q, r, s} is called an finite set since it has four
members: p, q, r, and s. The set {10, 20, 30, . . .} is
called an infinite set since it has an unlimited number
of elements: the natural numbers that are multiples of
10.

Example
D= {days of the week}
= {Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday,
Friday, Saturday}
And, n(D)= 7

Example
E= {even numbers greater than 9}
= {10, 12, 14, }
And, n(E)= infinite
Unit set
A set with only one element. It is also
known as a singleton.

Example
A= {X|X set of months in one year }
{x|x is an even prime number}={2}.

Empty Set or Null Set
A set with no elements is called an empty set
or null set. The symbols used to represent the
null set are { }.
Example
If, H = {the number of dinosaurs on
earth}
Then, H is an empty set.
That is, H = {}
Note: An empty set is denoted by the symbol {}
Universal set
The totality of elements of sets under consideration/discussion.

This is the set from which all the elements being examined are
members. The universal set is denoted by the symbol UExample
Using set builder notation, where {x:..} means the set of all x such
that,
If A = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
Then U = {x: x 0, x W}
That is, the universal set, U= W, the set of whole numbers.
Example
Using set builder notation, where {x:..} means the set of all x such
that,
If A = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
Then U = {x: x 0, x W}
That is, the universal set, U = W, the set of whole numbers.

subsets
A set whose elements are member of a given set.
Given set A and B, if all the element of set A are found
in B, then A is a subset of B.
A set N is a subset of a set X, if all the elements of N
are contained in/members of the larger set X.
Example
If, X = {3, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13}
And, N = {5, 11, 13}
Then, N is a subset of X.
That is, N X (where means is a subset of).

Equal and Equivalent Sets
Two sets A and B are equal (written A = B) if they have exactly
the same members or elements. Two finite sets A and B are said
to be equivalent (written A B) if they have the same number of
elements: that is, n(A) = n(B).

Two sets are equal if they both have the same members.
Example
If, F = {20, 60, 80}
And, G = {80, 60, 20}
Then, F=G, that is both sets are equal.
Note: The order in which the members of a set are written does not
matter.
Two sets are equivalent if they have the same number of elements.

Example
If, F = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}
And, G = {10, 12, 18, 20, 22}
Then, n(F)= n(G)= 5, that is, sets F and G are
equivalent.

OPERATIONS ON SETS
Given sets A and B, then A U B is called the union of sets A
and B. It is the set of all elements which belong to set A and B.
Hence, A U B = {x/x A or x B}

Examples:
a.) A = { 1, 3, 5, 7 }
B = { 2, 4, 6 }

A U B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}

b.) X = { S, T, A, R }
Y = { R, A, T, E }
X U Y = {S, T, A, R, E}

Note: In union of sets, we write the elements only once.

INTERSECTION OF SETS
The intersection of two sets A and B, writtenA!B, is
found by listing all the elements that are common to
both A and B. When two mathematical equations or
inequalities are joined by the word "and," it meansto
find the intersection of the two individual solutions.
Examples
Find the intersection of each pair of sets.
If A = {1, 3, 6, 10} and B = {3, 6, 9, 12, 15} then A!B= {3, 6}
If S = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} and T = {4, 6, 10} then S!T = { 4, 6,
10} = T
Given set A and B, then A B is called the intersection
of set A and B. It is the set which contains all the
elements common to set A and B.
Hence; A B = {x/x A or x B}

Examples:
a.) A = {0, 2, 4, 6, 8}
B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}
A B = {2, 4, 6}

b.) R = {-1, -2, -3}
V = {1, 2, 3}
R V = {}

Compliment of a Set
The complement of set A is the set of elements
which does not belong to A but is found in the
universal set. A' is the symbol used for the
complement of set A and read as A prime.

Cartesian Product



Let A = { m, n } and B = { 2, 4 }
Then A x B {(m, 2), (m, 4), (n, 2), (n, 4)}
B x A {(2, m), (4, m), (2, n), (4, n)}

Hence, A x B B x A
The Cartesian Product of Sets A & B is defined as

A x B = {(a, b) a A and b B
EXERCISES
I. OPERATION ON SETS
In Exercise 1-10, let ={1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
B = {3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
C = {7, 8, 9, 10}
Find the following:
1. A B =
2. B C =
3 . C' =
4. A B C =
5. B C =
6. (A B) C' =
7. A B =
8. (A B) C' =
9. B =
10. A C =
III. CARTESIAN PRODUCT
Given: A ={a, b}, B ={c}, C = {a, b, c}
Find the set of all ordered pairs for the following:
1. A x A =
2. A x B =
3. B x A =
4. B x (A C) =
5. (A B) x B =
6. (C B) x (B C) =
7. C x B =
8. C x A =
9. C x C =
10. A x C =
VENN-EULER DIAGRAMS
The mathematicians Leonard Euler (1707-1783)
and John Venn (1834-1923) used diagrams
represented by circles, ovals, or cloud-like
shapes on a plane to illustrate the principles of
logics and thus the methods was named after
them. In set theory it is a convenient way of
picturing set relations such as equality and set
operations such as union, intersection, and
complement.
II. VENN-EULER DIAGRAM
Solve the following using the Venn-Euler Diagram:
1. A survey on subjects being taken by 250 college
students in Metro Manila revealed the following
information.

90 were taking Mathematics
145 were taking Filipino
88 were taking English
25 were taking Math and Filipino
38 were taking Filipino and English
59 were taking Math and English
15 were taking all the three subjects
II. VENN-EULER DIAGRAM
Solve the following using Venn-Euler diagram

1. How many were not taking any of the three subjects?
2. How many students were taking Mathematics as their
only subject?
3. How many students were taking Mathematics and
Filipino but not English?
4. How many students were taking Filipino and English
but not Mathematics?
II. VENN-EULER DIAGRAM
U












E
M
F
21
10
97
44
6
15
23
34
1. How many were taking any of the
three subjects?

2. Mathematics as their only subject?

3. Mathematics and Filipino but not
English?

4. Filipino and English but not
Mathematics?
34
21
10
23
To find out the preferences of 170 students on
sports, a survey was made by the P.E.
Department of FEU. The survey showed that 53
played basketball, 62 played football, 73 played
volleyball, 28 played basketball and football, 43
played volleyball and football, 35 played
basketball and volleyball, and 15 played all the
three games.
a. How many did not play of the three games.
b. How many played basketball only? Volleyball
only?
c. How many played basketball and volleyball
nut not football?
d. How many played football and basketball but
not volleyball?
CHAPTER 2
THE ALGEBRA OF THE
REAL NUMBER SYSTEM
LESSON 1

ADDITION OF ALGEBRAIC
EXPRESSION

ADDITION OF ALGEBRAIC
EXPRESSION
Algebraic Expression any combination of
symbols and numbers related by the four
fundamental operations of algebra.

Example: 10m + 6p,3xy and (3x 15) are
algebraic expressions.
Algebraic Sum any algebraic expression with distinct
parts related by plus or minus signs. The terms of an
expression consist of each distinct part together with
the sign.

Example 1: In the algebraic sum 7y-5y+16, 7y is the
first term, -5y is the second term and 16 is the third
term.
Example: Add 3x-6x+10 and -7x+5x-2.
The sum of (3x-6x+10) and (-7x+5x-2) is
= 3x-7x-6x+5x+10-2
= -4x-x+8


LESSON 2

REMOVING THE SYMBOLS OF
GROUPING


REMOVING THE SYMBOLS OF
GROUPING
1. Remove first the innermost symbol of
grouping.
2. When the symbol of grouping is preceededby
a positive sign, we remove the symbols of
grouping without changing the signs of the
terms enclosed.
3. When the symbol of grouping is preceeded
by a negative sign, we change the sign of the
terms enclosed.
Example 1: The difference between 3x-2y+10 and 2x+y-2 is
(3x-2y+10) (2x+y-2)
= 3x-2y+10 2x+y-2
= 3x-2x-2y-y+10+2
= x-3y+12
Example 2:Simplify the expression 3x-[5x-2y-(x-7y)]+(3x-9)
by removing parenthesis and brackets.
Combine similar terms.
Solution: 3x-[5x-2y-(x-7y)]+(3x-9)
= 3x - [5x- 2y- x - 7y] + 3x-9
= 3x 5x + 2y + x 7y + 3x 9
= 3x 5x + 3x + x + 2y 7y 9
= 2x 5y 9


Example 3: Find the value of -3xy + 7x 10y
when x = 4 and y = -2
Solution: Subtitute 4 for x and -2 for y.
= -3xy + 7x 10y
= -3(4)(-2) + 7(4) 10(-2)
= 24 + 28 + 20
= 72
DEFINITION
Monomial an algebraic expression consisting
of only one term.

Binomial an algebraic sum or difference of
two terms.

Multinomial an algebraic expression
consisting of a sum of any number of
terms.

EXERCISES
ADDITION OF ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSION

I. Perform the indicated operations and simplify

1. (11x + 5y) + (13x + 18y)
2. (7a b c) + (2a 2b + c)
3. (17xy + 12y 10x) - (-xy - 3y 5x)
4. (100a 72b 88c) (66c 89a + 120b)
5. (44x 12y + 7z) +(100x 100y+ 10z)
III. Remove the symbols of grouping and simplify.

1. (2x 3y0 + (7y + 10x) (5y x)
2. [a- (3b a) + 6b] + [10b (7b 10a)]
3. -[-(3m + n p) 11p + 3m] + (-8m 10n + 5p)
4. 10p - [-6p (p + 50)]
5. 8b (2a 6b) [16a 12p - (-3p + 8a)]
ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSION
I. In each of the following, enclose the last two
terms in parenthesis preceeded by a minus sign.

1. 3x 7x + 10
2. 11p + 12z 16a
3. 5x 11y 8y 5
4. ax + by + bx 12y
5. 20 y + x 12



LESSON 3

MULTIPLICATION OF
ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS

Polynomial any multinomial in which each term
is an integral rational.

Examples:

a) 7x + 5; 3x 7x + 1; 5x + 12x + x 7 are
polynomials of the first, second and third
degree, respectively.
STEPS IN DIVIDING
POLYNOMIALS
1. To divide a polynomial by a monomial, divede
each term of the polynomial by the monomial.
2. To divide a polynomial by another polynomial:
a) Arrange each polynomial in descending
powers of some common letter.
b) Divide the first term of the dividend by the first
term of the divisor to get the first termof the
qoutient.
c) Multiply the divisor by the first term of the
qoutient and subtract the product from the
dividend.
d) Using the remainder obtained as a new
dividend, repeat this process.
e) Continue the process until the remainder is 0
or it is of a lower degree than the divisor.
(SYNTHETIC DIVISION) STEPS IN
DIVIDING A POLYNOMIAL Y (x-a)
1. Arrange the term of P(x) in descending order.

2. Arrange in a line the coefficients of P(x)
supplying all missing terms with zeroes as
numerical coefficients.

3. Bring down the first coefficient of P(x) to the first
position of the third line.


4. Multiply the first coefficient by a, writing the
product in the second line under the second
coeficient of P(x). The sum of the product and
the second coefficient is placed in the third line.
Multiply the sum by a, add the product to the
next coefficient of P(x), again writing the new
sum in the third line and so on. The sums in the
third line represent the coeficients of the
quotient and the last sum is the remainder.

SPECIAL PRODUCTS
These special products are prerequisites to further work in
mathemetics. The student should verify the steps by actually
carrying out the steps.
1. a(x + y) = ax + ay
2. (x + y)(x y) = x y
3. (x +
4. (x + a)(x + b) = x + (a + b)x + ab
5. (ax + b)(cx + d) = acx + (ad + bc)x + bd
6. (x + y) = x + 3xy + 3xy + y
7. (x + y)(x + xy + y) = x + y
8. (x + y + z) = x + y + z + 2xy + 2xz + 2yz
We illustrate each of these products.

1. 5(x + y) = 5x + 5y
2. (a 2b)(a + 2b) = a - 4b
3. (3a + 2b) = 9a + 12ab + 4b
4. (3a 2b) = 9a 12ab + 4b
5. (x + 3)(x 2) = x + x - 6
6. (5x 6)(3x + 4) = 15x + 2x - 24
7. (3a + 2b) = (3a)+3(3a)(2b)+3(3a)(2b)+(2b)
= 27a + 54ab + 36ab + 8b
8. (3a 2b) = 27a - 54ab + 36ab - 8b
9. (3x + 2y)(9x 6xy + 4y) = 27x + 8y
10. (3x - 2y)(9x + 6xy + 4y) = 27x - 8y
EXERCISES
EXPONENTS
1. (5mnp)

2. (35xy)

3. -(ab)(ab)(ab)

4. (x y)(x y)(x y)(x y)

5. (2pm)(4pm)
MULTIPLICATION OF
ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS
1. 7xy(x + 3y + 7y)

2. 15xy(2x + 7y + 3x)

3. (3x 7)(8x + 3)

4. (a 1)(a + 2)(a 3)

5. (x - y)
DIVISION OF POLYNOMIALS
1. 10a 2a + 6a 4 by a a + 1

2. 14x + 8x 12 by 2x 3

3. 5x 6x + 2 + x by x 1

4. 4x + 6x 14 by x + 1

5. 13ab 8b 11ab + 4a by a 1. + 4b
SPECIAL PRODUCTS
1. 4m(2m + 2n)

2. -12x(xy 5xy + 6xy

3. (3x + 7)(3x 7)

4. (5a + 8b)(5a + 8b)

5. (2a - b)
LESSON 6

FACTORS AND FACTORING
FACTORS AND FACTORING
Definition

Factor for integers c and d, the integers c is a
factor of d if d can be divided by c with a
remainder of zero.

Prime number a positive integer greater than
one, having only itself and one as factors.

Composite number - a positive integer other than
one that is not prime.




Common factor an integer that is a factor
of two or more integers.

Greatest common factor of a set of integers
the largest of the common factors of the set of
integers.
Steps in Finding the Greatest
Common Factor
1. Factor each number into prime factor.

2. List each different prime factor common to all
the numbers.

3. Get the smallest exponent of the prime factors
from the prime factored forms.

4. Multiply the primes in step 3. If there are no
primes common to all numbers, the greatest
common factor is one.


Example 1: Write each number in prime factored form.
a) 100 = 2 5 2 5 = 2 5
b) 29 = Since 29 is prime, its prime form is 29.

Example 2: Find the greatest common factor (GCF) for each set of
numbers.
a) 36 and 24. First write each number in factored form.
36 = 2 2 2 2
24 = 2 2 2 3
GCF = 3 2 2 = 3 2 = 12
b) Find the GCF of 25mn, -15mn, 45mn, -30mn.
5 is the GCF for the coefficients 25, -15, 45, -30.
The smallest exponent for m is 3 and for n is 2. Hence, the GCF
is 5mn.
The concept of the greatest
common factor can be used to
express a polynomial in factored
form.
Steps in Factoring by Grouping
1. Group the terms so that will have a common factor.

2. Using the distributive property, factor out from each
group the common factor.

3. Factor the greatest common factor from the result of
step 2 if possible.
Example: Factor by grouping.
a) 3x 15 + ax 5a
= (3x 15) + (ax 5a)
= 3(x 5) + a(x 5)
= (x 5)(3 + a)



FACTORING TRINOMIALS
Example 1:x + 10x + 16.
Look for two integers whose product is 16 and
whose sum is 10. We list all the possible pairs and
examine the sums:
8 2 8 + 2 = 10 (Sum is 10.)
4 4 4 + 4 = 8
16 1 16 + 1 = 17
Hence, the needed factors are 8 and 2.
The factors are (x + 8)(x + 2).
Example 2: Factor m - m 6.
We need to find two integers whose product is -6
and whose sum is -1.
-6 1 -6 + 1 = -5
6 -1 6 + -1 = 5
2 -3 2 + -3 = -1 (Sum is -1.)
-2 3 -2 + 3 = 1
The factors then are (m 3)(m + 2).
Example 3: Factor 6x + 13x + 5.
The factors of 5 are 5 and 1and the possible
factors of 6x are 6x and x, or 3x and 2x. We try all
the possibilities.
(6x+1)(x+5) = 6x + 31x + 5 incorrect
(6x+5)(x+1) = 6x + 11x + 5 incorrect
(3x+1)(x+5) = 6x + 17x + 5 incorrect
(3x+5)(x+1) = 6x + 13x + 5 correct
Hence, the correct factors are (3x+5)(x+1).
Note: example 3is different from example 1 and
example 2.

SPECIAL FACTORIZATIONS
Difference of two squares: x y = (x+y)(x-y)

Perfect square trinomials: x + 2xy + y = (x+y)
x - 2xy + y = (x-y)

Difference of two cubes: x y = (x-y)(x + xy + y)

Sum of two cubes: x+ y = (x+y)(x - xy + y)
EXERCISES
FACTORS
1. 79

2. 125

3. 93

4. 180

5. 475
FACTORING
1. 16p 8p

2. 38yz + 19yz

3. 14m 21m

4. 100a 50a + 25a

5. 121z 11z + 22z

CHAPTER 3
RATIONAL
EXPRESSION
FRACTION
Fraction- is a ratio or a quotient of two numbers or two
algebraic expressions. Multiplying or dividing both
numerator and denominator (not zero) by the same
number does not change the value of the fraction.
REDUCING FRACTIONS TO
LOWEST TERMS
1. Find the greatest common factor (GCF) that will
divide both numerator and denominator.
2. Divide both numerator and denominator by the GCF.

A fraction is in the lowest term when the numerator
and the denominator cannot be divided by the same
number other than 1
(without remainder)
example:
a) 75 25 3 3
400 25 16 16
b) 56xy 8 7xyy
72Xy 8 9xyx
c) 6x + 11x 10 (2x + 5)(3x 2) 3x - 2
2x + 7x + 5 (2x + 5)(x + 1) x + 1

TO ADD TWO OR MORE
DISSIMILAR FRACTIONS
1. find the least common denominator (LCD) by the
factoring all the denominators and forming a product
of the prime factors, giving to each factor the highest
exponent with which it appears in any denominator.
2. Divide the LCD by the denominator of each fraction
and multiply the quotient by the numerator.
3. The equivalent fractions are addeed.
MULTIPLICATION AND
DIVISION OF FRACTIONS
The product of two or more fractions is a fraction
whose numerator is the product of all numerators
and whose denominator is the product of all
denominator.
A C AC
B D BD

The quotient of the two fractions is the product of the
dividend and the multiplicative inverse of the divisor.
A c a d
B d b c

Complex fraction
Complex fraction is a complex rational expression is
an expression which contains fractions in the
numerator or denominator or both.

SIMPLIFY COMPLEX FRACTIONS

1. Rewrite both the numerator and denominator as
single fractions.
2. Perform the indicated division.
Example :
12 6 12x + 6
1 x x

X 1 2x + 1
4 8 8

12x + 6
X
2x + 8
8

12x + 6 . 8
x 2x + 1

= 6(2x + 1) . 8
X 2x + 1

= 48
x

EXERCISE
FRACTION
1. 39
156

2. 45xy
50xy

3. 1 275
3 363
CHAPTER 4
FUNCTIONS AND
RELATION
The Concept of Functions And
Relations
The concept of a function is abasic
and of great importance in pure
and applied mathematics, that is
why, it is studied in all branches of
mathematics.
DEFINITIONS
Relation a set of ordered pairs.
Function a set of ordered pairs (x,y) such
that no two ordered pairs have the same
first elements.
Domain set of all x's in the ordered pair
(x,y).
Range set of all y's in the ordredpair
(x,y).
Example :
1. {(3, 5), (7, 9), (10, 15), (12, 30)} is a relation.

2. in the example 1, the domain is the set
{3, 7, 10, 12}

3. in example 1, the range is the set
{5, 9, 15, 30}

We use the notations f(x), g(x), h(x) read as
f of x, g of x,and h of x to denote function.
KINDS OF FUNCTIONS
Conjstant Functions a function whose graph is
parallel to the x- axis and the range contains only
one value

ex. Graph y + 2 = 0 and find the domain and range.

Domain = {xx is a real number }
Range = { 2 }
2. Polynomial function a function for which g(x) is a
polonymial of degree n, expressed by g(x) =
ax+ax + . . . + . . .
an where n is an negative integer.

a. Linear Function a polonomioal function of degree
one. Its graph is straight line.


b. Quadratic Function a polonomial function of
degree of two. Its graph is a parabola
c. Cubic Function is a third degree polonomial
d. Absolute Value is a function denoted by
Y = x b .

OPERATIONS ON FUNCTIONS
Given two functions f and g :
1. Their sum denoted by (f + g). is the function defined
by (f + g)(x) = f(x) + g(x).
2. Their difference, denoted by (f g), is the function
defined by(f - g)(x) = f(x) g(x).
3. Their product denoted by, (f g), is the function
defined by(f g)(x) = f(x) g(x).
4. Their quotient defined by ( f ), is the fuction defined
G
By ( f )(x) = f(x)
G g(X)



5. The composite function , denoted by f g, is defined by
(f g) (x) = f(g(x)), and the domain of f g is the set of
all x's in the domain of g, such that g(x) is in the
domain of f
a) ( f + g)(x) = x - 2 + x + x = 2x + x 2
Domain = all reals

b) ( f - g)(x) = x - x - 2 - x = -x 2
Domain all reals

Example :
1. Multiply both numerator and denominator by the
smallest factor which will make the denominator
rational, if the denominator is a monomial
radical.

2. Multiply both numerator and denominator by the
conjugate of the denominator, if the denominator
is a binomial containing radicals.
Rationalization of radicals
CHAPTER 5
EXPONENTS, ROOTS AND
RADICALS
INTEGERS AS
EXPONENTS

NOTE:
a^1/n is called the nth root of a and is also written as
a . The symbol is the radical sign, a is the
radicand and n is the index.
When n is an even natural number and a is positive,
there will be two real roots: one positive and one
negative. When a is negative, there will be no real
roots.
When n is odd, a is positive if a is positive and
negative when a is negative.



Example 1: By definition, 100 has two square roots,
10 and -10, since (10)(-10) = 100 and (10)(-10) is
also 100. Thus,100 = 10.

Example 2: The number -32 has one fifth root -2,
since (-2)(-2)(-2)(-2)(-2) = -32
Hence, -32 = -2

Example 3: The number 8 has one cube root, since
(2)(2)(2) = 8
Hence, 8 = 2


NOTE: A radical is in its simplest form if:

1. The radicand does not contain any factor which
the indicated root can still be taken.
2. There are no radicals in the denominator of a
fraction.
3. There is no fraction or fractions under a radical
sign.
4. The order of the radical must be as low as
possible.
Example 1: add and simplify.
a) 5x + 6x- 7x = 4x
b)250 332+200 = 2252 3162 +1002
=102 122 + 102
=82

Example 2: multiply and simplify
a) 15 5 = 75= 253 = 53
b) 5
1. Multiply both numerator and denominator by the
smallest factor which will make the denominator
rational, if the denominator is a monomial
radical.

2. Multiply both numerator and denominator by the
conjugate of the denominator, if the denominator
is a binomial containing radicals.
Rationalization of radicals
1. Express the terms in exponential form and
make the denominators of the exponents equal.

2. Express in radicals having the same indices.

3. Carry the operation of multiplication or division.
Multiplication and Division of
Radocals with Different Indices

1. 4ay + 4a +8ay
2. 2/3
3. 754xyz
4. 5/129/81
5. 8 32 6
Exercise 1
Radicals
1. 918 -28 + 1050
2. 3a2x + 2a8x -5172x
3. 5xa 3xa -10xa
4. 5x+y + 10x+y -35x+y
5. 1375 +1248

Exercise 2
Operations involving radicals
CHAPTER 6
INEQUALITIES AND
ABSOLUTE VALUES
INEQUALITIES

DEFINITION:

1. A statement used to define an order relation is an
inequality, that is, it is a statement that one
mathematical expression is greater than or less than
another. In symbols, x > y is read as x is greater than
y and x<y is read as x is greater than y
For real numbers a and b:
2. a>b if and only if a-b is positive
3. a<b if and only if a-b is negative.
4. ab if and only if either a>b or a=b
5. ab if and only if either a <b or a=b.
6. Two inequalities are said to have the same
sense if their order symbols are alike when read in
the same direction.
7. a real number a is said to be positive if a> 0
and is said to be negative if a <0.
8. a>b means b<a
a<b means b>a.


Axiom 1. The Trichotomy Axiom. If a, b R, then
one of the following statements is true:
a=b, a>b or a<b
Axiom 2. The Transitive Axiom. If a, b R, such
that if a > b, and b < c, then a > c.
Axiom 3. The addition Axiom. If a, b, c R, such
that if a >b, then a+c>b+c.
Axiom 4. The multiplication Axiom. If a, b, c R,
such that if a>b, and if c>0 then ac > bc or if
c<0 , then ac < bc
ORDER AXIOMS OF REAL
NUMBERS
INEQUALITIES IN ONE VARIABLE
If an inequality contains a variable , then a solution is a
value of the variable that makes the inequality a true
statement. The set of all solutions is called the solution
set of the inequality. To solve an inequality is to writeit
as a sequence of equivalent and successively simpler
inequalities by using the properties. The objective is to
isolate the variable and solve for it.


Example 1:
Solve the ineqtality 12y -3 < 5y 1

Solution: 12y 3 < 5y 1 ; Adding -5y+3 to both sides
12y 5y < 3-1 ; Simplifying
7y<2 ; Dividing both sides by 7
Y<2/7
The solution is y < 2/7

Example 2: Specify and graph on a number line the
solution set of the inequality.
12- 25x > 5x + 72
Solution: Algebraically,
12- 25x > 5x + 72
-5x 25x > 72- 12 Remark: an open dot is
-30x > 60 drawn at -2 element to
Hence, x < -2 indicate that -2 is not an
element of th solution set.
Graphically,
-4 -3 -2 -1 0
Example 3: Solve and graph the solution set of
15 x + 5 < 35.
Solution: Adding -5, we have
15 5 x + 5 -5 < 53 5
10 x < 30 or (10, 30)

Graphically:

5 10 15 20 25 30 35

Remark: a black dot is placed on 10 because 10 is
an element of the solution set.
QUADRATIC INEQUALITIES IN ONE
VARIABLE
The technique we used to obtain equivalent
inequalities of the first degree can be used to obtain
equivalent inequalities of the second degree. To solve
such inequality, we must find the set of values of x for
which the inequality is true.
DEFINITION:
An inequality of the form ax + bx + c > 0 or
ax + bx + c < 0 is a quadratic inequality in one
variable.

An inequality like an equation may or may not be a
true statement. For example, the inequality
x + 1 < 0 is not true for any real number x. The
inequality x + 1 < 0 is true only for values of x
between -1 and +1. The inequality x + 1 > 0 is true for
all values of x. Notice that in the above explanation,
not all unequalities may be or may not be satisfied by
any real numbers which give rise to conditional and
unconditional inequality.
CONDITIONAL INEQUALITY- an inequality which
is not satisfied for every value of x in the domain of f.

UNCONDITIONAL INEQUALITY- is one that
satisfied by every value of x in the domain of f.
Example 1: for what values that the inequality
x 2x 15 > 0 hold?
Solution: if we factor the expression, we will have
x 2x 15 = (x - 5)(x + 3)
Since the product of two terms wil be positive only if
both factors are positive or both negative, we see that
x 5 > 0 or {x > 5}
and and
x + 3 > 0 {x > -3}
Will bothy be true if x > 5
Example 2: For what values of x does the inequality
(x + 3)(x 1) < 0 hold?
We have to solve two cases:
Case 1: x + 3 > 0 and x 1 < 0
Case 2: x + 3 < 0 and x 1 > 0
Solution:
Case 1: if x + 3 > 0, then x > -3; and if x 1 < 0, then
x < 1.
Graphically:
- 3 -2 -1 0 1


The solution set for Case 1 is:
{x x + 3 > 0} {x x 1 < 0} = {-3 < x < 1}
Or (-3, 1)

Case 2: if x + 3 < 0, then x < -3; and if x 1 > 0, then
x > 1.
The solution set for case 2 is:
{x x + 3 < 0} {x x 1 > 0} =
The solution set of the inequality is on open
interval.
{-3 < x < 1} U {-3 < x < 1} (3, 1)

INEQUALITIES IN TWO VARIABLES
In this section, we introduce the concept of linear
inequality in two variables, show how an inequality
can be solved, and discuss the solution of systems of
inequalities.


SOLVING LINEAR INEQUALITIES IN TWO
VARIABLES
Linear inequalities in two variables are of the forms:
Ax + By < C Ax + By C
Ax + By > C Ax + By C
Where A, B, and C are real numbers . The solution set
of a linear inequality in two variables is a subset of the
plane consisting of al points (x, y) whose coordinates
satisfy the inequality.
For example, the point (0, 0) is an element of the
solution set of the inequality , 4x + 3y 24
Because
4(0) + 3(0) = 0; 0 24
Similarly,
4(1) + 3(1) = 7; 7 24
And
4(-2) + 3(-1) = -11; 11 24
So the points (1, 1) and (-2, -1) are also elements
of the solution set.
Since the line having an equation of the form
Ax + By = C, consists of those points which satisfy
the equation, then all points lying on this line are also
elements of both the solution set of the linear inequality
Ax + By C and the solution set of the linear
inequality Ax + By C.
However, no point lying on this line is an
element of the solution set of the linear inequality
Ax + By < C or the solution set of the linear
inequality Ax + By > C.
THE SOLUTION SET OF A LINEAR
INEQUALITY IN TWO VARIABLES

To find the solution set of a linear inequality in two
variables:
1. Replace the inequality symbol in the given linear
inequality by an equal sign, thus obtaining the
equation of a line.
2. Graph the line. If the given linear inequality is of the
form Ax + By < C or Ax + By > C, use a dashed line
to indicate that the points on the line are not in the
solution set.
a)3. Choose any point that does not lie on the line and
substitute its coordinates in the given inequality.
a.)If the cordinates of the chosen point satisfy the
inequality, then that point and all points on the same
side of the line are the elements of the solution set. All
points on the other side of the line are not the element
of the solution set.
b.) if the coordinates of the chosen point satisfy the
inequality, then that point and all the other points on the
same side of the line are not the elements of the
solution set. On the contrary, all points on the other
side of the line are the elements of the solution set.
c.) if the linear inequality is in the form Ax + By < C
or Ax + By > C, the solution set consists only of those
points on the line.
CHAPTER 6
INEQUALITIES AND
ABSOLUTE VALUES
INEQUALITIES

DEFINITION:

1. A statement used to define an order relation is an
inequality, that is, it is a statement that one
mathematical expression is greater than or less than
another. In symbols, x > y is read as x is greater
than y and x<y is read as x is greater than y

For real numbers a and b:

2. a>b if and only if a-b is positive
3. a<b if and only if a-b is negative.
4. ab if and only if either a>b or a=b
5. ab if and only if either a <b or a=b.
6. Two inequalities are said to have the same
sense if their order symbols are alike when read in
the same direction.
7. a real number a is said to be positive if a> 0
and is said to be negative if a <0.
8. a>b means b<a
a<b means b>a.


Axiom 1. The Trichotomy Axiom. If a, b R, then
one of the following statements is true:
a=b, a>b or a<b
Axiom 2. The Transitive Axiom. If a, b R, such
that if a > b, and b < c, then a > c.
Axiom 3. The addition Axiom. If a, b, c R, such
that if a >b, then a+c>b+c.
Axiom 4. The multiplication Axiom. If a, b, c R,
such that if a>b, and if c>0 then ac > bc or if
c<0 , then ac < bc
ORDER AXIOMS OF REAL
NUMBERS
INEQUALITIES IN ONE VARIABLE
If an inequality contains a variable , then a
solution is a value of the variable that
makes the inequality a true statement. The
set of all solutions is called the solution set
of the inequality. To solve an inequality is to
writeit as a sequence of equivalent and
successively simpler inequalities by using
the properties. The objective is to isolate the
variable and solve for it.


Example 1:
Solve the ineqtality 12y -3 < 5y 1

Solution: 12y 3 < 5y 1 ; Adding -5y+3 to both sides
12y 5y < 3-1 ; Simplifying
7y<2 ; Dividing both sides by 7
Y<2/7
The solution is y < 2/7

CHAPTER 8
LINEAR AND QUADRATIC
EQUATIONS,
EQUATIONS WITH RADICALS,
SYSTEMS OF EQUATIONS
LINEAR EQUATIONS
In this section, we will solve equations of the form
ax + b = c where a, b, and c are real numbers and a 0
Definitions
Equation a mathematical statement which states that two
quantities are equal.
Linear equation an equation of the form ax = b = c where a,
b, and c are real numbers and a 0.
Equivalent equations equations with same solution set.
Literal equation an equation which has other letters aside
from the unknown.
Fractional equation an equation which contains fractions
and the unknown occurs in any denominator
STEPS IN SOLVING LINEAR EQUATIONS
1. To simplify, combine like terms and remove all
symbols of grouping.
2. Use the addition property of equality to simplify
further, if necessary, so that the unknown is on one side
of the equation.
3. Use the multiplication property of equality if
necessary to simplify further. The resul is an equation of
the form x= a, where a is a real number.
4 Check the solution by substituting into the original
equation.
WORD PROBLEMS INVOLVING LINEAR EQUATIONS
In order to solve word problems, first we must read the
problem carefully the determine the given and the
unknown quantities.

Steps to follow in solving word problems
1. Choose a variable to represent the unknown quantity
2. Translate the problem into an equation.
3. Solve the equation.
4. Answer which is asked in the problem.
5. Use the original words of the problem in checking the
solution.
By the Quadratic Formula
First, let us derive the quadratic formula from the quadratic
equation ax + bx + c = 0. Use the four steps summarized in
the previous section.

The Quadratic Formula
If ax + bx + c = 0 and a 0, then



x =
-b
b - 4ac

2a
The Discriminant
The part b - 4ac of the quadratic formula is called the
discriminant.
Through the discriminant, the type of solution of a
quadratic equation is determined, whether it is rational,
irrational, or imaginary. Consider the summary below
1. If the discriminant is the square of an integer, the
quadratic equation has two different rational number
solutions.
2. If the discriminant is zero, it has
exactly one rational number solution.
3. If the discriminant is a positive
number that is not a perfect square,
then it has two different irrational
number solutions.
4. If the discriminant is negative, there
will be two different complex solutions
which are conjugates of each other.
Nature of the Roots of a Quadratic Equation
The roots of a quadratic equation ax + c = 0 are
determined from x =
-b
+ b - 4ac

2a
And that if a, b, and c are real numbers and b- 4ac or
the discriminant is negative, then the roots are
imaginary; if b - 4ac = 0, then the roots are real and
equal; if b - 4ac > 0, then the roots are real and un
equal. Moreover, if a, b, and c are rational numbers and
b - 4ac is the square of a rational number, then the
roots are rational; if b - 4ac is not a square of a rational
number, then the roots are irrational.

SYSTEMS OF EQUATIONS
In this section, the solutions of equations are
discussed. When two or more equations are
solved together to find a common solution, then
we have a system equations. When in a set of
equations in the same number of unknowns,
each equation is independent and consistent
with the others, then we have a simultaneous
system. There is a solution to such system.
GRAPHICAL SOLUTION OF SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS
There are three possibilities which will arise in graphing systems of
equations. They are summarized below.
1. There is one point of intersection which
is the solution of the system. The equations
are said to be consistent.
2. The lines are parallel, there is no solution
set. The equations are said to be
inconsistent.
3. Lines coincide, there is an infinite solution
to the system. The equations are said to be
dependent.
SOLVING SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS BY ADDITION
Here are suggested steps in solving systems of equations by addition.
1. Rewrite the equations in the form of ax + by = c
2. Multiply one or both equations by appropriate numbers
to make coefficients of x or y additive inverses.
3 Add the equations to obtain an equation of one variable.
4 Solve the resulting equation to get the value of the variable.
5 Get the value of the other variable by substituting the obtained value in
either of the equations.
6. In checking, substitute the values in both equations. It should
satisfy both.
SOLVING SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS
BY SUBSTITUTION
We have already considered two methods; the
addition and the graphical mtheod. This time, we
will consider the substitution method. This
method eliminates one of the unknowns by
substituting its value in any equation in terms of
the other unknown in the other equations,
successively, until the given equation is reduced to
a linear equation in one unknown.
The following are some guidelines to solve systems of two linear
equations using this method:
1. Determine the value of one unknown in terms of
the other, let us say x in terms of y or y in terms of x from
any of the given equations.
2. Substitute this expression in the other equation.
3. Solve the resulting equation which is reduced to
linear equation in one unknown.
4. To find the value of the other unknown,
substitute the computed value of one of the
unknown in (3).
5. Check the roots by substituting the values of the
unknowns in the given equations.