Optical Sources

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 Optical Source
• Main function
• Convert electrical energy into optical energy
(with the condition that light output to be
effectively launched or coupled into optical
fiber)
• Types
• Wideband continuous spectra (incandescent
lamps)
• Monochromatic incoherent ( LEDs)
• Monochromatic coherent (LDs)

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 Optical Sources
• Requirements
• Size and configuration compatible with launching light into
the fiber( light should be highly directional)
• Should be linear (accurately track the electrical input signal
,minimize the distortion & noise)
• Emit light at wavelengths where fiber has low losses,
dispersion and where detectors are efficient
• Capable of simple signal modulation (direct modulation)
ranging from audio frequencies to GHz range
• Should couple sufficient optical power to overcome
attenuation in the fiber

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 Optical Sources
• Should have narrow spectral bandwidth (line
width) in order to minimize dispersion
• Must be capable of maintaining stable optical
output (that does not change with ambient
conditions)
• Should be comparatively cheap and highly
reliable in order to compete with conventional
transmission techniques

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 Basic Concept (LASER)
• Absorption and emission of radiation
The interaction of light with matter takes place in discrete packets of energy
or quanta, called photons. The absorption and emission of light causes them
to make a transition from one state of energy to another.
• E = E2 – E1 = hf

Two types of emission

• Spontaneous (entirely random manner)
• Stimulated (photons have identical energy, in phase and polarization)

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 Basic Concept (LASER)

• Population inversion
• More electrons in higher energy level
• Necessary to achieve optical amplification
• Pumping
• Process to achieve population inversion usually through external
energy source
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Basic Concept (LASER)

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 Basic Concept (LASER)
• Optical feedback and laser oscillations
• Photon striking an excited atom causes emission of a
second photon which release two more photons
creating an avalanche multiplication.
• Amplification &Coherence achieved by (Febry – Perot
resonator)
• Placing mirrors at either end of the amplifying medium
• Providing positive feedback
• Amplification in a single go is quite small but after multiple
passes the net gain can be large
• One mirror is partially transmitting from where useful
radiation may escape from the cavity
• Stable output occurs when optical gain is exactly matched
with losses incurred (Absorption, scattering and diffraction)

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 Basic Concept (LASER)
• Optical feedback and laser oscillations
• Oscillation occur over small range of
frequencies
• These frequencies achieve sufficient gain to
overcome cavity losses and radiate out
• Thus source emits over a narrow spectral band
and the device is not perfectly monochromatic

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 Semi Conductor Emission
• Types of material
• Conductor
• Insulators
• Semi conductors (intrinsic & extrinsic)
• N type material
• Donor impurity added
• Increases thermally excited electrons in the conduction
band
• P type material
• Acceptor impurity added
• Increases positive charges (holes) in the valance band
• PN junction

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Semiconductor
The properties of Semiconductor lies in between conductor
and insulator. The semiconductor has valance band, conduction
band and Fermi level ( the gap between two bands ). The Fermi
level is relatively small which means that small amount of energy is
sufficient to bring about electric current in semiconductors.

Conduction Band

Fermi Level
Valance Band
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 The electrical resistance of semiconductor lies in between
conductors and insulators. The increase in temperature can lower
the resistance in semiconductors. Silicon is the most common
semiconductor used.
The Fermi level can be increased or decreased by adding
dopants into Silicon.
If P-type material such as Aluminum, Gallium or Indium are
added, which create holes and shortage of electrons. Fermi level is
increased. If N-type material such as Phosphorus, Arsenic and
Boron are added the result is excess of electrons and Fermi level is
reduced.
P.N Junction
If a voltage is applied to P.N Junction ( Forward
biased ). The Fermi Level on both sides of Junction will move, so
that a current will flow through the P.N Junction. The electrons will
flow into the P layer and holes are formed in N layer. The system
tries to reach equilibrium by excited electrons flowing to holes .
During this process ,energy is released in the form of Photons. It is
the mechanism of Light emitting diodes. If p layer and N layer in the
P.N Junction are heavily doped and strong current used a population
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inversion of electrons occurs in an Optical Cavity ,a Laser can be
 Semiconductor Injection
Laser
• Stimulated emission by recombination of injected
carriers
• Optical cavity provided in the crystal structure
• Advantages are
• High radiance due to amplifying effect
• Narrow line width of the order of 1nm
• High modulation capabilities presently ranging in G Hz
• Good spatial coherence which allows the output to be
focused by a lens into a spot to provide high coupling
efficiency

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 Semiconductor Injection
Laser
• Efficiency
• External quantum efficiency ηD
• Ratio of increase in photon output rate for a given
increase in the number of injected electrons
• ηD = (d Pe/hf) / d I/e)
• Internal quantum efficiency ηi
• Ratio of the total number of photons produced the
cavity to the number of injected electrons
• Total efficiency ηT
• Ratio of the total number of output photons to the
number of injected electrons

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 Semiconductor Injection Laser
• Laser Modes
• Does not emit single wavelength but a series of wavelengths at
different modes
• Spacing of modes depends upon the length of the optical cavity

• Single Mode Operation can be achieved by

• Reducing the length of the optical cavity
• Difficult to handle
• Have not been practically successful

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 Injection Laser Structure
• Types are
• Gain guided lasers
• Multimode lasers
• Exhibits power kinks
• Operate both in short and long wavelength
• High threshold current and low quantum efficiency
• Index-guided lasers
• Operate at various wavelengths with a single mode
• Threshold current is low
• Quantum-well lasers

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 Injection Laser Diode (ILD)
• Distributed feedback lasers
• Elegant approach to achieve single frequency
operation
• Use of distributed resonators which utilizes
distributed Bragg diffraction grating
• Provides periodic variation in refractive index
• Only modes near Bragg wavelength is reflected
constructively
• Broadly classified as
• DFB
• DBR (Less well developed)

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 ILD Characteristics
• Threshold current Vs Temperature
• Threshold current in general tends to increase
with temperature
• Dynamic response
• Switch-on delay followed by damped
oscillations known as relaxation oscillations
• Serious deterioration at data rates above 100
Mbps if td is 0.5 ns and RO of twice this
• td may be reduced by biasing the laser near
threshold current
• ROs damping is less straight forward
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 ILD Characteristics
• Frequency Chirp
• Direct current modulation of a single mode
semiconductor laser causes dynamic shift of
the peak resulting in linewidth broadening
called Frequency Chirp
• Combined with chromatic dispersion causes
significant performance degradation
• Can be reduced by biasing the laser sufficiently
above the threshold current
• Low chirp in DFB and quantum well lasers

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 ILD Characteristics
• Noise
• Phase or frequency noise
• Instabilities like kinks
• Reflection of light into the device
• Mode partitioning
• Mode Hopping
• Mode hopping to a longer wavelength as the
current is increased above threshold

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 ILD Characteristics
• Reliability
• Major problem in ILDs
• Device degradation occur
• Two types of degradations
• Catastrophic degradation
• Mechanical damage to mirror facet
• Results in partial or complete failure
• Gradual degradation
• Defect formation in active region
• Degradation of the current confining region

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