Thermodynamic Cycles

Section 3
Thermodynamic Cycles
Air-standard analysis is used to perform elementary analyses
of IC engine cycles.

Simplifications to the real cycle include:
1) Fixed amount of air (ideal gas) for working fluid
2) Combustion process not considered
3) Intake and exhaust processes not considered
4) Engine friction and heat losses not considered
5) Specific heats independent of temperature

The two types of reciprocating engine cycles analyzed are:
1) Spark ignition Otto cycle
2) Compression ignition Diesel cycle
SI Engine Cycle vs Thermodynamic Otto Cycle
A
I
R
Combustion
Products
Ignition
Intake
Stroke
FUEL
Fuel/Air
Mixture
Air
TC
BC
Compression
Stroke
Power
Stroke
Exhaust
Stroke
Q
in
Q
out
Compression
Process
Const volume
heat addition
Process
Expansion
Process
Const volume
heat rejection
Process
Actual
Cycle
Otto
Cycle
Actual SI Engine cycle
TC

BC

Ignition
Process 1 2 Isentropic compression
Process 2 3 Constant volume heat addition
Process 3 4 Isentropic expansion
Process 4 1 Constant volume heat rejection
v
2

TC

TC

v
1
BC


BC
Q
out

Q
in

Air-Standard Otto cycle
3
4
2
1
v
v
v
v
r = =
Compression ratio:
First Law Analysis of Otto Cycle
12 Isentropic Compression
) ( ) (
1 2
m
W
m
Q
u u
in
=
2
1
1
2
1
2
v
v
T
T
P
P
=
AIR
) ( ) (
1 2 1 2
T T c u u
m
W
v
in
= =
23 Constant Volume Heat Addition
m
W
m
Q
u u
in
+ = ) ( ) (
2 3
) ( ) (
2 3 2 3
T T c u u
m
Q
v
in
= =






2
3
2
3
T
T
P
P
=
AIR
Q
in

TC
1
1
2
1
1
2

=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
k
k
r
v
v
T
T
3 4 Isentropic Expansion
AIR
) ( ) (
3 4
m
W
m
Q
u u
out
+ =

) ( ) (
4 3 4 3
T T c u u
m
W
v
out
= =


4
3
3
4
3
4
v
v
T
T
P
P
=
4 1 Constant Volume Heat Removal
AIR
Q
out

m
W
m
Q
u u
out
= ) ( ) (
4 1



) ( ) (
1 4 1 4
T T c u u
m
Q
v
out
= =
1
1
4
4
T
P
T
P
=
BC
1
1
4
3
3
4
1

=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
k
k
r v
v
T
T
( ) ( )
( )
2 3
1 2 4 3
u u
u u u u
Q
W
in
cycle
th

= = q
( ) ( )
2 3
1 4
2 3
1 4 2 3
1
u u
u u
u u
u u u u

=
Cycle thermal efficiency:
th
in
th
in
cycle
r
r
u
m Q
k r
r
V P
Q
P
imep
V V
W
imep q q
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|

=
|
.
|

\
|

=
1
/
1
1
1
1 1 1 1 2 1
Indicated mean effective pressure is:
Net cycle work:
( ) ( )
1 2 4 3
u u m u u m W W W
in out cycle
= =
First Law Analysis Parameters
1
2
1
2 3
1 4
1
1 1
) (
) (
1

= =

=
k
v
v
r T
T
T T c
T T c
Effect of Compression Ratio on Thermal Efficiency
Spark ignition engine compression ratio limited by T
3
(autoignition)
and P
3
(material strength), both ~r
k

For r = 8 the efficiency is 56% which is twice the actual indicated value
Typical SI
engines
9 < r < 11
k = 1.4
1
1
1

=
k
const c
th
r
V
q
Effect of Specific Heat Ratio on Thermal Efficiency
1
1
1

=
k
const c
th
r
V
q


Specific heat
ratio (k)




Cylinder temperatures vary between 20K and 2000K so 1.2 < k < 1.4
k = 1.3 most representative
The net cycle work of an engine can be increased by either:
i) Increasing the r (12)
ii) Increase Q
in
(23)
P
V
2
V
1

Q
in

W
cycle

1
2
3
(i)
4
(ii)
Factors Affecting Work per Cycle
1
4
4
3
th
in
cycle
r
r
V
Q
V V
W
imep q
|
.
|

\
|

=
1
1 2 1
Effect of Compression Ratio on Thermal Efficiency and MEP
|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|

=
k
in
r r
r
V P
Q
P
imep 1
1
1
1 1 1
k = 1.3
Thermodynamic Cycles for CI engines
In early CI engines the fuel was injected when the piston reached TC
and thus combustion lasted well into the expansion stroke.

In modern engines the fuel is injected before TC (about 15
o
)
The combustion process in the early CI engines is best approximated by
a constant pressure heat addition process Diesel Cycle

The combustion process in the modern CI engines is best approximated
by a combination of constant volume and constant pressure Dual Cycle
Fuel injection starts
Fuel injection starts
Early CI engine Modern CI engine
Early CI Engine Cycle and the Thermodynamic Diesel Cycle
A
I
R
Combustion
Products
Fuel injected
at TC
Intake
Stroke

Air
Air
BC
Compression
Stroke
Power
Stroke
Exhaust
Stroke
Q
in
Q
out
Compression
Process
Const pressure
heat addition
Process
Expansion
Process
Const volume
heat rejection
Process
Actual
Cycle
Diesel
Cycle
Process 1 2 Isentropic compression
Process 2 3 Constant pressure heat addition
Process 3 4 Isentropic expansion
Process 4 1 Constant volume heat rejection
Air-Standard Diesel cycle
Q
in

Q
out


2
3
v
v
r
c
=
Cut-off ratio:
v
2

TC
v
1
BC


TC

BC

( )
m
V V P
m
Q
u u
in 2 3 2
2 3
) ( ) (

+ =
AIR
23 Constant Pressure Heat Addition


) ( ) (
2 2 2 3 3 3
v P u v P u
m
Q
in
+ + =

) ( ) (
2 3 2 3
T T c h h
m
Q
p
in
= =

c
r
v
v
T
T
v
RT
v
RT
P = = = =
2
3
2
3
3
3
2
2
Q
in
First Law Analysis of Diesel Cycle
Equations for processes 12, 41 are the same as those presented
for the Otto cycle
) ( ) (
3 4
m
W
m
Q
u u
out
+ =
AIR
3 4 Isentropic Expansion







) ( ) (
4 3 4 3
T T c u u
m
W
v
out
= =


note v
4
=v
1
so
c
r
r
v
v
v
v
v
v
v
v
v
v
= = =
3
2
2
1
3
2
2
4
3
4


r
r
T
T
P
P
T
v P
T
v P
c
= =
3
4
3
4
3
3 3
4
4 4
1
1
4
3
3
4

|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
k
c
k
r
r
v
v
T
T
2 3
1 4
1 1
h h
u u
m Q
m Q
in
out
cycle
Diesel

= = q
( )
( )
(

=

1
1 1 1
1
1
c
k
c
k
const c
Diesel
r
r
k
r
V
q
For cold air-standard the above reduces to:
Thermal Efficiency
1
1
1

=
k
Otto
r
q
recall,
Note the term in the square bracket is always larger than one so for the
same compression ratio, r, the Diesel cycle has a lower thermal efficiency
than the Otto cycle

Note: CI needs higher r compared to SI to ignite fuel
Typical CI Engines
15 < r < 20
When r
c
(= v
3
/v
2
)1 the Diesel cycle efficiency approaches the
efficiency of the Otto cycle
Thermal Efficiency
Higher efficiency is obtained by adding less heat per cycle, Q
in
,
run engine at higher speed to get the same power.
k = 1.3
k = 1.3
The cut-off ratio is not a natural choice for the independent variable
a more suitable parameter is the heat input, the two are related by:
1
1 1
1 1
1

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
k
in
c
r
V P
Q
k
k
r
as Q
in
0, r
c
1

Modern CI Engine Cycle and the Thermodynamic Dual Cycle
A
I
R
Combustion
Products
Fuel injected
at 15
o
bTC
Intake
Stroke
Air
Air
TC
BC
Compression
Stroke
Power
Stroke
Exhaust
Stroke
Q
in
Q
out
Compression
Process
Const pressure
heat addition
Process
Expansion
Process
Const volume
heat rejection
Process
Actual
Cycle
Diesel
Cycle
Q
in
Const volume
heat addition
Process
Process 1 2 Isentropic compression
Process 2 2.5 Constant volume heat addition
Process 2.5 3 Constant pressure heat addition
Process 3 4 Isentropic expansion
Process 4 1 Constant volume heat rejection
Dual Cycle
Q
in
Q
in
Q
out
1
1
2
2
2.5
2.5
3
3
4
4
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
5 . 2 3 2 5 . 2 5 . 2 3 2 5 . 2
T T c T T c h h u u
m
Q
p v
in
+ = + =
Thermal Efficiency
) ( ) (
1 1
5 . 2 3 2 5 . 2
1 4
h h u u
u u
m Q
m Q
in
out
cycle
Dual
+

= = q
( )
(

+

=

1 ) 1 (
1 1
1
1

c
k
c
k
c const
Dual
r k
r
r
v
o o
o
q
1
1
1

=
k
Otto
r
q
( )
( )
(

=

1
1 1 1
1
1
c
k
c
k
const c
Diesel
r
r
k
r
V
q
Note, the Otto cycle (r
c
=1) and the Diesel cycle (o=1) are special cases:
2
3
5 . 2
3
and where
P
P
v
v
r
c
= = o
The use of the Dual cycle requires information about either:
i) the fractions of constant volume and constant pressure heat addition
(common assumption is to equally split the heat addition), or
ii) maximum pressure P
3
.

Transformation of r
c
and o into more natural variables yields
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
=

1
1 1 1
1
1
1 1
k
r
V P
Q
k
k
r
k
in
c
o
o
1
3
1
P
P
r
k
= o
For the same inlet conditions P
1
, V
1
and the same compression ratio:
Diesel Dual Otto
q q q > >
For the same inlet conditions P
1
, V
1
and the same peak pressure P
3

(actual design limitation in engines):
otto Dual Diesel
q q q > >
For the same inlet conditions P
1
, V
1

and the same compression ratio P
2
/P
1
:
For the same inlet conditions P
1
, V
1

and the same peak pressure P
3
:
}
}
=
=
3
2
1
4
1
1
Tds
Tds
Q
Q
in
out
th
q
x 2.5
P
max
T
max
P
o
P
o
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,

P

P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,

P

T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
,

T

T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
,

T

Specific Volume

Specific Volume

Entropy Entropy
Finite Heat Release Model
In the Otto cycle it is assumed that heat is released instantaneously.
A finite heat release model specifies heat release as a function of crank
angle.

The cumulative heat release or burn fraction x
b
is given by:
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
n
d
s
b
a x
u
u u
u exp 1 ) (
where u = crank angle
u
s
= start of heat release
u
d
= duration of heat release
n = form factor
a = efficiency factor
Used to fit to experimental data
0 < x
b
< 1
Finite Heat Release
A typical heat release curve consists of an initial spark ignition phase,
followed by a rapid burning phase and ends with burning completion phase
The curve asymptotically approaches 1 so the end of combustion is defined
by an arbitrary limit, such as 90% or 99% complete combustion where
x
b
= 0.90 or 0.99 corresponding values for efficiency factor a are 2.3 and 4.6

The rate of heat release as a function of crank angle is:
( )

|
|
.
|

\
|
= =
1
1
n
d
s
b
d
in
b
in
x
na
Q
d
dx
Q
d
dQ
u
u u
u u u
b in
dx Q dQ =
.99
( )
|
.
|

\
|

+ =
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
+ =
|
.
|

\
|
= =
=
u u u
u u u u
o
o o
u
d
dQ
V
k
d
dV
V
P
k
d
dP
d
dP
V
d
dV
P
R
c
d
dV
P
d
dQ
VdP PdV
R
c
PdV Q
mR
PV
d mc dT mc dU
W Q dU
d
v
v
v v
1


angle crank unit per

gas ideal assuming

, change, angle crank small a for
cylinder in the gas the containing system closed the to Law First Applying
Finite Heat Release Model
The cylinder volume in terms of crank angle, V(u), is
( )
2 1 2 2
) sin ( cos 1
2 1
) ( u u u + +

= R R
V
r
V
V
d d
Differentiating wrt u
( )
2 1 2 2
) sin ( cos 1 sin
2

+ = u u u
u
R
V
d
dV
d
where
s
l
R
r
S B V
d
2
ratio n compressio
nt volume displaceme
4
2
=
=
= =
t
For the portion of the compression and expansion strokes with no heat
release, where u < u
s
and u > u
s
+ u
d
dQ/du = 0
Finite Heat Release Model
Finite Heat Release Model Results
Start of heat release:
Engine 1 - 20
o
bTC
Engine 2 - TC

Duration 40
o
Finite Heat Release Model Results