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Heat Transfer

Dr. R. Velraj
Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
CEG, Anna University Chennai
Page 2
Study of
Heat and Work transfer
(quantitatively)
Thermodynamics & Heat Transfer
Thermodynamics
Heat Transfer
Study of
How heat flows
every activity involves
heat transfer
Page 3
Driving Potential & Resistance
Teaching Learning Process in a Class Room
Teachers
Interest &
Knowledge
Students
Interest &
Capability
Class Room Ambience
Knowledge
Transfer
DRIVING POTENTIAL
Difference between
Teachers interest + knowledge &
students interest + capability
However, higher potential difference leads to increase in entropy
RESISTANCE FACTORS
1. Time of lecture
2. Nature of subject
3. Ambience (conduciveness)
Page 4
Conduction
Solids > Lattice vibrations
Fluids > Molecular collisions
The transfer of energy in a solid or fluid via molecular contact
without bulk motion
MODE
T
0
T
1
< T
0
x
PHYSICAL
PHENOMENON
MATHEMATICAL
EQUATION
| |
''

|
\ .
dT
q
dx
Page 5
Conduction (contd.)
Fourier Law of Heat Conduction
The heat flux, q is directly proportional to temperature gradient
The proportionality constant, k, is defined as the thermal
conductivity, a thermo physical property.
| |
''

|
\ .
dT
q
dx
A
| |
''
=
|
A
\ .
x
T
q k
x
Page 6
Conduction (contd.)
Thermal Conductivity, k
Silver = 410 Wm
-1
K
-1
k/k
silver
Silver 1

Gold 0.7

Copper 0.93
Aluminum 0.86
Brass (70% Cu:30% Ni) 0.33
Platinum, Lead 0.25
Mild steel (0.1% Cu), Cast iron 0.12
Bismuth 0.07
Mercury 0.04
METALS
k/k
silver
Air 0.19
Water 0.0014
Granite, Sandstone 0.011
Average rock 0.012
Limestone 0.007
Ice 0.015
Glass (crown) 0.0058
Concrete (1:2:4) 0.0042
Brick 0.0038
Snow (fresh or average) 0.005
Soil (sandy, dry) 0.002
Soil (8% moist) 0.0033
Wood 0.0045
NON-METALS
Page 7
Convection
Convection occurs in liquids and gases.
Energy is carried with fluid motion when convection occurs.
PHYSICAL
PHENOMENON
( )
w a
Q hA T T =
MATHEMATICAL
EQUATION
Page 8
Convection (contd.)
The quantity h is called the convective heat transfer coefficient (W/m2-K).
It is dependent on the type of fluid flowing past the wall and the velocity
distribution.
Thus, h is not a thermo physical property.
Newtons Law of Cooling
( )
w a
Q hA T T =
Convection Process h(W/m
2
-K)
Free convection
Gases 225
Liquids
501000
Forced convection
Gases 25250
Liquids
5020,000
Convection phase change 2,500200,000
Page 9
Convection (contd.)
Single phase fluids (gases and liquids)
Forced convection
Free convection, or natural convection
Mixed convection (forced plus free)
Convection with phase change
Boiling
Condensation
Convective Processes
Page 10
Radiation
Energy transfer in the form of electromagnetic waves
PHYSICAL
PHENOMENON
MATHEMATICAL
EQUATION
4
s
E T co =
s A,T o
Page 11
Radiation (contd.)
Stefan-Boltzman Law
4
b s
E T
The emissive power of a black body over all wave
lengths is proportional to fourth power of temperature
Page 12
One Dimensional Heat Conduction
Net rate of heat
gain by conduction
Rate of energy
generation
Rate of increase
of internal energy
= +
[Aq]
x
[Aq]
x+ x
A x g
t
t x T
c x A
p
c
c
A
) , (

t
t x T
c g
x
Aq Aq
A
p
x x x
c
c
= +
A

A +
) , ( ] [ ] [ 1

+
=
Heat flow in
[Aq]
x

Heat flow out
[Aq]
x+x

g
k
x
Page 13
One Dimensional Heat Conduction (contd.)
( )
t
t x T
c g Aq
x A
p
c
c
= +
c
c

) , ( 1

As x 0, the first term on the LHS, by definition, becomes the derivative of


[Aq] with respect to x
t
t x T
c g
x
Aq Aq
A
p
x x x
c
c
= +
A

A +
) , ( ] [ ] [ 1

t
t x T
c g
x
T
Ak
x A
p
c
c
= +
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
c
c ) , ( 1

Heat flow in
[Aq]
x

Heat flow out
[Aq]
x+x

g
k
x
Page 14
One Dimensional Heat Conduction (contd.)
Rectangular Coordinates


Cylindrical Coordinates


Spherical Coordinates


A Compact Equation

t
t x T
c g
x
T
k
x
p
c
c
= +
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
c
c ) , (

t
t r T
c g
r
T
rk
r r
p
c
c
= +
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
c
c ) , ( 1

t
t r T
c g
r
T
k r
r r
p
c
c
= +
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
c
c ) , ( 1
2
2

t
t r T
c g
r
T
k r
r r
p
n
n
c
c
= +
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
c
c ) , ( 1

n = 0
n = 1
n = 2
Page 15
Boundary Conditions
Prescribed Temperature BC (First kind)
Prescribed Heat Flux BC (Second kind)
Convection BC (Third kind)


Page 16
Boundary Conditions
Prescribed Temperature BC (First kind)
Prescribed Heat Flux BC (Second kind)
Convection BC (Third kind)


0 L
x
T
1
T
2

T (x,t) |
x=0
= T (0,t) = T
1

T (x,t) |
x=L
= T (L,t) = T
2

Page 17
Boundary Conditions
Prescribed Temperature BC (First kind)
Prescribed Heat Flux BC (Second kind)
Convection BC (Third kind)


0 L
x
Heat
Supply
Conduction
flux
Heat
Supply
Conduction
flux
0
0
=
c
c
=
x
x
T
k q
L
L x
q
x
T
k =
c
c
+
=
W/m
2

W/m
2

L
L x
q
x
T
k =
c
c
+
=
0
0
q
x
T
k
x
=
c
c

=
Plate
Page 18
Boundary Conditions
Prescribed Temperature BC (First kind)
Prescribed Heat Flux BC (Second kind)
Convection BC (Third kind)


b
b r
q
r
T
k =
c
c
+
=
a
a r
q
r
T
k =
c
c

=
Hollow Cylinder or
hollow sphere
b
r
Heat
Supply
a r
a
r
T
k q
=
c
c
=
b
b r
q
r
T
k =
c
c
+
=
W/m
2

a
Page 19
Boundary Conditions
Prescribed Temperature BC (First kind)
Prescribed Heat Flux BC (Second kind)
Convection BC (Third kind)


Plate
Conduction
Convection
T
1
,

h
1

) (
2 2
L x
L x
T T h
x
T
k
=
=
=
c
c
+
Convection
Fluid
Flow
Conduction
T
2
,

h
2

Fluid
Flow
0
0
1 1
) (
=
=
c
c
=
x
x
x
T
k T T h
Convection heat flux
from the fluid at T
1
to
the surface at x = 0
Conduction heat flux
from the surface at
x= 0 into the plate
0
0
1 1
) (
=
=
c
c
=
x
x
x
T
k T T h
Page 20
Boundary Conditions
Prescribed Temperature BC (First kind)
Prescribed Heat Flux BC (Second kind)
Convection BC (Third kind)


Plate
Conduction
Convection
) (
2 2
L x
L x
T T h
x
T
k
=
=
=
c
c
+
Convection
T
1
,

h
1

Fluid
Flow
Conduction
T
2
,

h
2

Fluid
Flow
0
0
1 1
) (
=
=
c
c
=
x
x
x
T
k T T h
Convection heat flux
from the fluid at T
2
to
the surface at x = L
Conduction heat flux
from the surface at
x = L into the plate
L x
L x
x
T
k T T h
=
=
c
c
+ = ) (
2 2
Page 21
Boundary Conditions
Prescribed Temperature BC (First kind)
Prescribed Heat Flux BC (Second kind)
Convection BC (Third kind)


Hollow Cylinder or
hollow sphere
b
r
Heat
Supply
a
) (
2 2
b r
b r
T T h
r
T
k
=
=
=
c
c
+
Fluid
Flow
T
1
,

h
1

Fluid
Flow
T
2
,

h
2

a r
a r
r
T
k T T h
=
=
c
c
= ) (
1 1
Convection heat flux
from the fluid at T
1
to
the surface at r = a
Conduction heat flux
from the surface at
r= a into the plate
a r
a r
r
T
k T T h
=
=
c
c
= ) (
1 1
Page 22
Boundary Conditions
Prescribed Temperature BC (First kind)
Prescribed Heat Flux BC (Second kind)
Convection BC (Third kind)


Hollow Cylinder or
hollow sphere
b
r
Heat
Supply
a
) (
2 2
b r
b r
T T h
r
T
k
=
=
=
c
c
+
Fluid
Flow
T
1
,

h
1

Fluid
Flow
T
2
,

h
2

a r
a r
r
T
k T T h
=
=
c
c
= ) (
1 1
Convection heat flux
from the fluid at T
2
to
the surface at r = b
Conduction heat flux
from the surface at
r= b into the plate
b r
b r
r
T
k T T h
=
=
c
c
+ = ) (
2 2
Page 23
Steady State One Dimensional Heat Conduction
Rectangular Coordinates
T = T
1

0
L
T = T
2

x
0
2
2
=
c
c
x
T
Governing Equation
2 1
) ( c x c x T + =
1
1 2
) ( T x
L
T T
x T +
|
.
|

\
|

=
L
T T A K
Q
x
) .( .
2 1

=
A K
L
R
.
=
Page 24
Steady State One Dimensional Heat Conduction
Cylindrical Coordinates (Solid Cylinder)
T = T
1

0
r
T = T
2

b
0
) ( 1
0
= +
(

k
g
dr
r dT
r
dr
d
r
Governing Equation
0
0
) (
=
(

=
r at
dr
r dT
| |
b r at
T r T
=
=
2
) (
2 1
0
ln
2
) ( c r c r
k
g
r T + + =
2
2
0
1
4
) ( T
b
r
k
g
r T +
(
(

|
.
|

\
|
= Solving,
2
) (
) (
0
r g
dr
r dT
k r q = =
Page 25
Steady State One Dimensional Heat Conduction
Cylindrical Coordinates (Solid Cylinder)
Solved Example
T = T
1

0
r
T = T
2

b
Solution
T(0) = 350 C
q(r) = 10
6
W/m
2
2
2
0
1
4
) ( T
b
r
k
g
r T +
(
(

|
.
|

\
|
=
2
) (
0
r g
r q =
For r=1cm
g
0
= 2 x 10
8
W/m
3
k = 20 W/(m.C)
T2 = 100 C

What will be the
1. Centre temperature T(0)
2. Heat flux at the boundary surface (r=1cm)
Equations to use (derive)
Page 26
Steady State One Dimensional Heat Conduction
Cylindrical Coordinates (Hollow Cylinder)
Determination of Temperature Distribution
0
) (
=
(

dr
r dT
r
dr
d
2 1
ln ) ( c r c r T + =
Solving,
a
b
r
0
T
1

T
2

k
Mathematical formulation of this problem is
in a < r < b
) / ln(
1 2
1
a b
T T
c

=
) / ln(
) ln(
) (
1 2 1 2
a b
a
T T T c =
) / ln(
) / ln( ) (
1 2
1
a b
a r
T T
T r T
=

Page 27
Steady State One Dimensional Heat Conduction
Cylindrical Coordinates (Hollow Cylinder)
Expression for radial heat flow Q over a length H
rH
dr
r dT
k area r q Q H = = 2
) (
). (
1
2 Hc k H =
Since,
a
b
r
0
T
1

T
2

k
The heat flow is determined from,
1
) / 1 ( / ) ( c r dr r dT =
) (
) / ln(
2
2 1
T T
a b
kH
Q
H
=
Rearranging,
R
T T
Q
2 1

=
kH
a b
R
H
=
2
) / ln(
where,
Page 28
Steady State One Dimensional Heat Conduction
Cylindrical Coordinates (Hollow Cylinder)
Expression for thermal resistance for length H
here, A
0
= 2aH =area of inner surface of cylinder
A
1
= 2bH =area of outer surface of cylinder
A
m
= logarithmic mean area
t = b a = thickness of cylinder

a
b
r
0
T
1

T
2

k
Above equation can be rearranged as,
kH
a b
R
H
=
2
) / ln(
where,
Hk a b
aH bH a b
kH
a b
R
H
H H
=
H
=
2 ) (
)] 2 /( 2 ln[ ) (
2
) / ln(
m
kA
t
R =
) ln(
0 1
0 1
A A
A A
A
m

=
Page 29
Steady State One Dimensional Heat Conduction
Spherical Coordinates (Hollow Sphere)
Expression for temperature distribution
in a < r < b
The mathematical formulation is given by,
where,
r
a
0
b
0
) (
2
=
|
.
|

\
|
dr
r dT
r
dr
d
2
1
) ( c
r
c
r T + =
) (
2 1 1
T T
a b
ab
c

=
a b
aT bT
c

=
1 2
2
2 1
. . . . ) ( T
a b
a r
r
b
T
a b
r b
r
a
r T

=
Page 30
Steady State One Dimensional Heat Conduction
Spherical Coordinates (Hollow Sphere)
Expression for heat flow rate Q and thermal resistance R
Heat flow rate is determined using the equation,
r
a
0
b
(

H =
dr
r dT
k r Q
) (
) 4 (
2
1
2
1
2
4 ) 4 ( kc
r
c
k r H =
|
.
|

\
|
H =
using, ) (
2 1 1
T T
a b
ab
c

= from last slide


R
T T
T T
a b
ab
k Q
2 1
2 1
) ( 4

=

H =
where,
kab
a b
R
H

=
4
Page 31
Composite Medium
Example (Furnace Wall)
FURNACE
R
E
F
R
A
C
T
O
R
Y

L
I
N
I
N
G

2

R
E
F
R
A
C
T
O
R
Y

L
I
N
I
N
G

1

FURNACE WALL
B
R
I
C
K

W
A
L
L

Ambient
Page 32
Composite Medium
Example (Condenser Water Tube)













Condensing Medium (Steam)
Cooling Water
Scale
Tube Wall
Page 33
Composite Medium
Composite Slab (resistance in series)
L
1
L
2
L
3
T
a
T
0
T
1
T
2
T
3
T
b
T
a
T
0
T
1
T
2
T
3
T
b
R
a
R
1
R
2
R
3
R
b
Q
Q
T
a
,

h
a

Fluid
Flow
T
b
,

h
b

Fluid
Flow
Q
Q
b
b
a
a
R
T T
R
T T
R
T T
R
T T
R
T T
Q

=

=
3
3
3 2
2
2 1
1
1 0 0
b
b
a
a
Ah
R
Ak
L
R
Ak
L
R
Ak
L
R
Ah
R
1
; ; ; ;
1
3
3
3
2
2
2
1
1
1
= = = = =
W
R
T T
Q
b a

=
b a
R R R R R R + + + + =
3 2 1
Page 34
Composite Medium
Composite Slab (resistance in parallel)
A E
B
C
D
Insulated
Insulated
T
1

T
2

R
A

R
D

R
c

R
B

R
E

T
1

T
2

W
R
T T
Q
2 1

=
D C B p eq
E p eq A
R R R R
R R R R
1 1 1 1
.
.
+ + =
+ + =
Page 35
Composite Medium
Composite Cylinder
h
a

k
1

k
2

k
3

h
b
T
a
T
0
T
1
T
2
T
3
T
b
R
a
R
1
R
2
R
3
R
b
Q
Q
b
b
a
a
R
T T
R
T T
R
T T
R
T T
R
T T
Q

=

=
3
3
3 2
2
2 1
1
1 0 0
b
b
a
a
Hh r
R
r
r
Hk
R
r
r
Hk
R
r
r
Hk
R
Hh r
R
3 2
3
3
3
1
2
2
2
0
1
1
1
0
2
1
; ln
2
1
ln
2
1
; ln
2
1
;
2
1
H
=
H
=
H
=
H
=
H
=
W
R
T T
Q
b a

=
b a
R R R R R R + + + + =
3 2 1
Page 36
Composite Medium
Composite Spheres
T
a
T
0
T
1
T
2
T
3
T
b
R
a
R
1
R
2
R
3
R
b
Q
Q
b
b
a
a
R
T T
R
T T
R
T T
R
T T
R
T T
Q

=

=
3
3
3 2
2
2 1
1
1 0 0
b
b
a
a
h r
R
r r
r r
k
R
r r
r r
k
R
r r
r r
k
R
h r
R
2
3 2 3
2 3
3
3
1 2
1 2
2
2
0 1
0 1
1
1
2
0
4
1
;
4
1
4
1
;
4
1
;
4
1
H
=

H
=

H
=

H
=
H
=
W
R
T T
Q
b a

=
b a
R R R R R R + + + + =
3 2 1
h
b
h
a

k
1

k
2

k
3

Page 37
Composite Medium
Critical Thickness of Insulation
T
1

r
1

r
o

H Convection
into an
ambient at
T

,h
0

Insulation Radius, r
r
c

H
e
a
t

L
o
s
s
,

q

Page 38
Composite Medium
Critical Thickness of Insulation
T
1

r
1

r
o

H
Convection
into an
ambient at
T

,h
0

The rate of heat loss Q from the tube is given by
0
R R
T T
Q
ins
i
+

=

i
ins
r
r
kH
R
0
ln
2
1
H
=
0 0
0
2
1
Hh r
R
H
=
| |
0
1
) /( ) / ln(
) ( 2
2
0 0 0
2
0 0 0
0
=
|
|
.
|

\
|

+
H
=

r h
k
r
r h k r r
T T kH
dr
dQ
i
i
For Cylinder



0
0
h
k
r
c
=
For Sphere



0
0
2
h
k
r
c
=
Page 39
Composite Medium
Solved Example (Composite Cylinder)
Calculate,
1. Heat loss from tube for length H=10m
2. Temperature drops resulting in thermal
resistances
7.6 cm
K = 15 W/(m C)
Insulation
t =2 cm
K=0.2 W(m.C)
T
a
=330C
h
a
=400 W/(m
2
.C)
Ambient air
T
b
=30C
h
b
= 60 W/(m
2
.C)
Determination of heat loss
W
R R R R
T T
Q
b a
b a
+ + +

=
2 1
400 10 025 . 0 2
1
2
1
0
H
=
H
=
a
a
Hh r
R
W C R
a
/ 10 59 . 1
3
=

5 . 2
8 . 3
ln
15 10 2
1
ln
2
1
0
1
1
1
H
=
H
=
r
r
Hk
R
W C R / 10 44 . 0
3
1
=

Page 40
Composite Medium
Solved Example (Composite Cylinder)
Calculate,
1. Heat loss from tube for length H=10m
2. Temperature drops resulting in thermal
resistances
7.6 cm
K = 15 W/(m C)
Insulation
t =2 cm
K=0.2 W(m.C)
T
a
=330C
h
a
=400 W/(m
2
.C)
Ambient air
T
b
=30C
h
b
= 60 W/(m
2
.C)
Determination of heat loss
W C R / 10 65 . 33
3
2
=

W C R
b
/ 10 21 . 4
3
=

W C R R R R R R
b a
/ 10 89 . 39
3
3 2 1
= + + + + =

W Q 7521
10 89 . 39
30 330
3
=

=

Page 41
Composite Medium
Solved Example (Composite Cylinder)
Calculate,
1. Heat loss from tube for length H=10m
2. Temperature drops resulting in thermal
resistances
7.6 cm
K = 15 W/(m C)
Insulation
t =2 cm
K=0.2 W(m.C)
T
a
=330C
h
a
=400 W/(m
2
.C)
Ambient air
T
b
=30C
h
b
= 60 W/(m
2
.C)
Determination of temperature drops
b
b
a
a
R
T T
R
T T
R
T T
R
T T
Q

=

=
2
2
2 1
1
1 0 0
C QR T
C QR T
C QR T
C QR T
b outside
insulation
tube
a hotgas
= = A
= = A
= = A
= = A
7 . 31
0 . 253
3 . 3
0 . 12
2
1
Page 42
Composite Medium
Solved Example (Composite Wall)
2 x 4 wood studs have actual dimensions of
4.13 x 9.21 cm with k = 0.1 W/m.C
Calculate,
1.Overall heat transfer coefficient
2.R value of the wall
Thermal resistance model
Note: k is expressed in W/m C
T
air
inside
R
sheath
outside
R
sheath
inside
R
insul
R
sheath
outside
R
sheath
inside
R
stud
R
convection
inside
R
convection
outside
R
brick
T
air
outside
Two parallel heat flow paths are possible
1. Through the studs
2. Through the insulation
COMMON BRICK, k =0.69
INSULATION, k=0.04
GYPSUM SHEATH
k=0.96
k=0.48
2x 4 STUDS
40.6 cm
8cm
1.9cm
1.9cm
Outside Air Convection
h=15 W/m
2
C
Inside Air Convection
h=7.5 W/m
2
C
Page 43
Composite Medium
Solved Example (Composite Wall)
Calculate,
1. Overall heat transfer coefficient
2. R value of the wall
Heat flow through the studs
Note: k is expressed in W/m C
Area = 0.0413m
2
/unit depth

Heat flow occurs through 6 thermal resistances
1. Convection Resistance outside of brick
2. Conduction resistance in brick
3. Conduction resistance through outer sheet
4. Conduction resistance through wood stud
5. Conduction resistance through inner sheet
6. Convection resistance on inside

Recall,
hA R
convection
/ 1 = kA x R
conduction
/ A =
W C R
total
/ 39 . 31 23 . 3 96 . 0 3 . 22 48 . 0 807 . 2 614 . 1 = + + + + + =
COMMON BRICK, k =0.69
INSULATION, k=0.04
GYPSUM SHEATH
k=0.96
k=0.48
2x 4 STUDS
40.6 cm
8cm
1.9cm
1.9cm
Outside Air Convection
h=15 W/m
2
C
Inside Air Convection
h=7.5 W/m
2
C
Page 44
Composite Medium
Solved Example (Composite Wall)
Calculate,
1. Overall heat transfer coefficient
2. R value of the wall
Heat flow through the insulation
Note: k is expressed in W/m C
The five of the materials are same, but the
resistances involve different area terms, i.e.,
40.6 - 4.13 cm instead of 4.13 cm.



Thus the total resistance of the insulation
section is given below

W C R
total
/ 337 . 7 =
COMMON BRICK, k =0.69
INSULATION, k=0.04
GYPSUM SHEATH
k=0.96
k=0.48
2x 4 STUDS
40.6 cm
8cm
1.9cm
1.9cm
Outside Air Convection
h=15 W/m
2
C
Inside Air Convection
h=7.5 W/m
2
C
Page 45
Composite Medium
Solved Example (Composite Wall)
Calculate,
1. Overall heat transfer coefficient
2. R value of the wall
1. Overall heat transfer coefficient
Note: k is expressed in W/m C
Overall resistance is obtained by combining
the parallel resistances as calculated earlier.





Overall heat transfer coefficient is found by,

(here, A = 0.406m
2
)


W C
R
overall
/ 947 . 5
) 337 . 7 / 1 ( ) 39 . 31 / 1 (
1
=
+
=
overall
R
T
T UA q
A
= A =
C m W
RA
U = = =
2
/ 414 . 0
) 406 . 0 )( 947 . 5 (
1 1
COMMON BRICK, k =0.69
INSULATION, k=0.04
GYPSUM SHEATH
k=0.96
k=0.48
2x 4 STUDS
40.6 cm
8cm
1.9cm
1.9cm
Outside Air Convection
h=15 W/m
2
C
Inside Air Convection
h=7.5 W/m
2
C
Page 46
Composite Medium
Solved Example (Composite Wall)
Calculate,
1. Overall heat transfer coefficient
2. R value of the wall
2. R Value of the wall
Note: k is expressed in W/m C
The resistance of the wall is calculated using
the overall heat transfer coefficient, as given
below:
W m C
U
R
value
/ . 414 . 2
414 . 0
1 1
2
= = =
COMMON BRICK, k =0.69
INSULATION, k=0.04
GYPSUM SHEATH
k=0.96
k=0.48
2x 4 STUDS
40.6 cm
8cm
1.9cm
1.9cm
Outside Air Convection
h=15 W/m
2
C
Inside Air Convection
h=7.5 W/m
2
C
Page 47
Composite Medium
Solved Example (Critical Thickness of Insulation)
Calculate, the critical thickness of rubber and the
maximum heat transfer rate per metre length of
conductor.
The temperature of rubber is not to exceed 65 C (due
to heat generated within).
Critical thickness
r = 5mm
Rubber
k = 0.155 W/mK
Ambient at
30C, 8.5 W/m
2
K
m W
R R
T T
Q
ins
i
/ 89 . 14
02 . 1 32 . 1
30 65
0
=
+

=
+

=

m W C
r
r
kH
R
i
ins

=
|
.
|

\
|
H
=
H
=
/
32 . 1
005 . 0
0182 . 0
ln
155 . 0 2
1
ln
2
1
0
m W C
Hh r
R =
H
=
H
= / 02 . 1
5 . 8 0182 . 0 2
1
2
1
0 0
0
m h k r
o c
0182 . 0 5 . 8 / 155 . 0 /
0
= = =
Maximum heat transfer rate
Page 48
Heat Source Systems
Plane wall with heat generation
Expression for mid plane temperature is given
by,




The temperature distribution can also be written
in alternative form as:
w
T L
k
g
T + =
2
0
2
2
0
1
|
.
|

\
|
=

L
x
T T
T T
w
w
q = heat generated
per unit volume
T
w

T
w

x
L
L
x
=
0

Page 49
Conduction-Convection Systems
Fins / Extended Surfaces
Necessity for fins

Biot Number


=
LONGITUDINAL
RECTANGULAR FIN
h
k x
k
hx
/ 1
) / (
=
Internal Conductive resistance
Surface Convective resistance
FIN TYPES
RADIAL FIN
Page 50
Conduction-Convection Systems
Governing Equation (Rectangular Fin)
Net Heat Conducted Heat Convected = 0
0 ) ( ] [ =
+
T T hPdx Aq Aq
dx x x
) (

= T T hPdx dq
conv
q
x
q
x+dx

dx
L
Z
x
b
a
s
e

A
t
0 ) ( =

+
T T hP
dx
Aq Aq
dx x x
( ) 0 ) ( =

T T hP Aq
dx
d
x
0 ) ( =
|
.
|

\
|


T T hP
dx
dT
kA
dx
d
0 ) (
2
2
=

T T
kA
hP
dx
T d
0
2
2
2
= u
u
m
dx
d
where, &
kA
hP
m =

= T T u
Page 51
Conduction-Convection Systems
Boundary Conditions
LONG FIN

= =

x as 0 ) (
0 at x ) (
0 0
x
T T x
u
u u
0 in x 0 ) (
) (
2
2
2
> = x m
dx
x d
u
u
L at x 0
dx
(x) d
0 at x T (x)
L x 0 in 0 ) (
) (
0 0
2
2
2
= =
= =
s s =

u
u u
u
u
T
x m
dx
x d
SHORT FIN
(end insulated)
L at x 0 ) (
dx
(x) d
0 at x T (x)
L x 0 in 0 ) (
) (
0 0
2
2
2
= = +
= =
s s =

x h k
T
x m
dx
x d
e
u
u
u u
u
u
SHORT FIN
( end not insulated)
Page 52
Conduction-Convection Systems
Types of Fin Boundaries
Type of FIN
boundary
Temperature Distribution



Heat transferred by fin

Q
Long Fin
(T
L
= T

)

e
-mx
(Tb-T

)(hPkA)
0.5

Short Fin
(end insulated)
(hPkA)
0.5
(T
b
-T

) tanh (mL) *
Short Fin
(end not insulated)
Specified End
Temperature
At x=L; T=T
L

b
T T
T T

m(L-X)
(mL)
Cosh
Cosh
) ( ) / ( ) (
)] ( [ ) / ( )] ( [
mL Sinh mk h mL Cosh
X L m Sinh mk h X L m Cosh
L
L
+
+ 5 . 0
) (
) tanh( ) / ( 1
) / ( ) tanh(
) ( hPkA
mL mk h
mk h mL
T T
L
L
b
+
+


) (
)] ( [ ) (
mL Sinh
x L m Sinh mx Sinh
T T
T T
b
L
+

5 . 0
) (
) (
1 ) (
)] ( ) [( hPkA
mL Sinh
mL Cosh
T T T T
L b

+

* For higher values of mL (i.e., m=4), tanh mL = 0.999 1.
Thus Q
short fin
Q
long fin
for higher values of mL
Page 53
Conduction-Convection Systems
Performance Parameters
Fin Efficiency
ideal
fin
Q
Q
= =
0
T , re temperatu base fin at were surface fin
entire if fin h fer throug heat trans Ideal
fin h fer throug heat trans Actual
q
In practical applications, a finned heat transfer surface is composed of the
finned surfaces and the unfinned portion. In such cases total heat transfer is used.

Q
total
= Q
fin
+ Q
unfinned
= a
f
h
0
+ ( a a
f
) h
0

Where, a = total heat transfer area (i.e., fin surface + unfinned surface)
a
f
= heat transfer area of fins only



Q
total
= [+(1-)] a h
0
a h
0


Where, = +1 = area weighted fin efficiency
= a
f
/ a

Page 54
Conduction-Convection Systems
Performance Parameters
Fin Efficiency
F
i
n

E
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
,


L (2h/kt)
0.5

Fin efficiency curves are available for fins of
various configuration (eg. Axial, circular disk
fins of various length, thickness etc)
Each curve is specific for
specific fin configuration
Page 55
Conduction-Convection Systems
Performance Parameters
Fin Effectiveness
Although the addition of fins on a surface increases surface area, it also increases
thermal resistance over the portion of the surface where fins are attached. Therefore
there may be situations in which the addition of fins does not improve heat transfer.

Pk / (Ah) > 1 (to justify usage of fins)
fin without
fin with
Q
Q
ess Effectiven =
Page 56
Conduction-Convection Systems
Solved Example
A steel rod is exposed to ambient air. If one end of the
rod is maintained at a temperature of 120 C, calculate
the heat loss from the rod

Diameter = 2cm
Length = 25 cm
k = 50 W / m. C

T
amb
= 20C
h = 64 W / m
2
. C
T
base
=120C
The condition for other end of the rod is not specified
explicitly. By considering L/D ratio, it appears that a
long fin assumption is applicable. Using the simplest
analysis to solve, computing mL:





Therefore, expression for Q
long fin
can be used.

4 0.25 16 mL and 16
02 . 0 50
64 4 4
) 4 / (
2
2
= = =

= = = =
m
kD
h
k D
D h
kA
hP
m
t
t
( ) ( )
( ) W 1 . 25 64 50 ) 02 . 0 (
2
20 120
4
) (
3
2
= =
|
.
|

\
|
= =

t
t
t kh D D T T hPkA T T Q
b b
Page 57
Conduction-Convection Systems
Solved Example (Fin Efficiency)
CIRCULAR DISK FIN
Circular disk fins of constant thickness are attached on a 2.5 cm OD
tube with a spacing of 100 fins per 1m length of tube.
Fin Properties: Aluminium k = 160 W / m.C, t = 1mm L = 1 cm
Tube wall temperature = 170 C; Ambient temperature = 30 C
Heat transfer coeff. of ambient , h = 200 W/m
2
. C.
Calculate,
1. Fin Efficiency and area weighted fin efficiency
2. Heat lost to the ambient air per 1m length of tube
3. Heat loss with that if there were no fins on tube
t
L
F
i
n

E
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
,


L (2h/kt)
0.5

r
o
/r
i
Fin Efficiency
Fin efficiency is determined using the graph shown aside.
The following parameters are calculated, firstly:
9 . 0
graph from determined is efficiency fin The
8 . 1
25 . 1
1 25 . 1

5 . 0
10 160
200 2
10 1
2
3
2
~
=
+
=
=

q
i
o
r
r
kt
h
L
Page 58
Conduction-Convection Systems
Solved Example (Fin Efficiency)
CIRCULAR DISK FIN
Calculate,
1. Fin Efficiency and area weighted fin efficiency
2. Heat lost to the ambient air per 1m length of tube
3. Heat loss with that if there were no fins on tube
t
L
Area Weighted Fin Efficiency
Ratio of heat transfer area for fin to the total heat transfer area,

Fin Surface per cm of tube length = 2(r
0
2
-r
i
2
) = 2[2.25
2
-1.25
2
]
= 21.99 cm
2


Total heat transfer surface per cm of tube length
= 2 (r
0
2
-r
i
2
) + 2r
i
(1 t)
= 2[2.25
2
-1.25
2
] + 2(1.25)(1 0.1)
= 29.06 cm
2
= a
f
/ a = 21.99 / 29.06 = 0.757

Area Weighted Fin Efficiency, = +1 = 0.757(0.9) + 0.243
= 0.924
Tube OD = 2.5 cm
100 fins per 1m tube length
k
fin
= 160 W/mC
t = 1mm; L = 1cm
T
tube
= 170C; T
amb
= 30C
h
amb
= 200 W/m
2
. C
Page 59
Conduction-Convection Systems
Solved Example (Fin Efficiency)
CIRCULAR DISK FIN
Calculate,
1. Fin Efficiency and area weighted fin efficiency
2. Heat lost to the ambient air per 1m length of tube
3. Heat loss with that if there were no fins on tube
t
L
Heat lost to ambient per 1m length of tube
Total heat transfer surface a per 1m of tube length
a = 29.06 x 100 cm
2
= 0.29 m
2

Q = ah
0
= 0.924 x 0.29 x 200 (170 30) = 7503 W

Tube OD = 2.5 cm
100 fins per 1m tube length
k
fin
= 160 W/mC
t = 1mm; L = 1cm
T
tube
= 170C; T
amb
= 30C
h
amb
= 200 W/m
2
. C
Heat lost per 1m length of tube with no fins
Q
no fin
= 2r
i
h
0
= 2 x 0.0125 x 200 x (170 30) = 2199 W


Clearly, the addition of fins increases the heat dissipation by a
factor of about 3.4

Page 60
Transient Conduction
If the surface temperature of a solid body is suddenly altered, the
temperature within the body begins to change over time.

Variation of temperature both with position and time makes determination of
temperature distribution under transient condition more complicated.

In some situations, variation of temperature with position is negligible under
transient state, hence the temperature is considered to vary only with time.

The analysis under the above assumption is called lumped system
analysis.

Biot Number, Bi = (hx) / k

Lumped System Analysis is applicable only when Bi < 0.1


Page 61
Systems with Negligible Internal Resistance
The convective heat loss from the body (shown aside) has its
magnitude equal to decrease in internal energy of solid.







On Integration,


Solving and rearranging,
Lumped Heat Analysis
dt
dT
pcV T T hA Q = =

) (
dt
pcV
hA
T T
dT
=


1
) ln( C t
pcV
hA
T T +

=

Volume V
Area A
Q
T

T

T=T
0
at t=0

| | t pcV hA
T T
T T
). / ( exp
0
=

1/hA
C
th
=cV
S
T
0

T


Page 62
Systems with Negligible Internal Resistance
It is a non-dimensional parameter used to test the validity of the lumped heat
capacity approach.



The characteristic length (L
c
) for some common shapes is given below:

Plane Wall (thickness 2L) Long cylinder (radius R)



Sphere (radius R) Cube (side L)



The lumped heat capacity approach for simple shapes such as plates, cylinders,
spheres and cubes can be used if Bi < 0.1


Biot Number
k
hL
resistance convective
resistance internal
Bi
c
= =
L
A . 2
L 2 . A
L
c
= =
2
R
L . R 2
L . R
L
2
c
= =
t
t
3
R
R 4
R ) 3 / 4 (
L
2
3
c
= =
t
t
6
L
L 6
L
L
2
3
c
= =
Page 63
Systems with Negligible Internal Resistance
For a rapid response of temperature measuring device, the index, (hAt/cV) should
be large to make the exponential term reach zero faster.
This can be achieved by decreasing wire diameter, density and specific heat or by
increasing value of h.
The quantity (cV/hA) has the units of time and is called time constant of system.
Hence at time t=t
*
(one time constant),



At the end of time period t
*
the temperature difference between the body and
ambient would be 0.368 of the initial temperature difference.
In other words, the temperature difference would be reduced by 63.2 percent.
This reduction in 63.2 percent of initial temperature difference is called sensitivity
Lower the value of time constant, better the response of instrument.
Response time of a Temperature measuring Instrument
| | t pcV hA
T T
T T
). / ( exp
0
=

368 . 0
1
0
= =

e
T T
T T
Page 64
Systems with Negligible Surface Resistance
When convective heat transfer coefficient at the surface is
assumed to be infinite, the surface temperature remains
constant at all the time (t>0) and its value is equal to that of
ambient temperature.
The systems exhibiting above said conditions are considered
to have negligible surface resistance
An important application of this process is in heat treatment of
metals by quenching, viz., the dropping of a metallic sphere
initially at 300 C into a 20 C oil bath.
Mathematical formulation of this case is :
T
s
= T

(t>0) T
s

T
0
(x) for
t = 0
x
L
Large Flat Plate with
Negligible Surface Resistance
t
T
x
T
c
c
=
c
c
o
1
2
2
L x s s 0
condition) (initial L x 0 for 0 at t ) x ( T T
0
s s = =
0 for t 0 at x T T
s
> = = Boundary
Conditions
0 for t L at x T T
s
> = =
Page 65
Heat flow in an Infinitely Thick Plate
A semi-infinite body is one in which at any instant of time there
is always a point where the effect of heating / cooling at one of
its boundaries is not felt at all.
At this point the temperature remains unchanged.
Mathematical formulation is :



with initial and boundary conditions,
Semi-Infinite Plate
Semi-infinite body
Q
o

T
s

x
T
o

at t=0

t
T 1
x
T
2
2
c
c
=
c
c
o
x all for 0 at t T T
0
= =
0 t all for 0 at x T T
s
> = =
0 t all for x as T T
0
>
Page 66
Systems with Finite Surface and Internal Resistance
Mathematical formulation :
Infinitely Large Flat Plate
of Finite Thickness (2L)
T


h
x=0
h
x=L
x=-L
at t=0
x
-x
T



1
2
2
t
T
x
T
c
c
=
c
c
o
L) x L - (for 0 at t
0
s s = = T T
line) (centre 0 at x 0
x
T
= =
c
c
L at x ) T T (
k
h
x
T
= =
c
c

Page 67
Chart Solutions of Transient Heat Conduction Problems
Time History
Mid Plane
Heisler Charts (by Heisler, 1947)
Infinite Plate
1

0.9

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.1

0.5

T(x,t) - T

T
i
- T

Fourier number, /L
2

hL/k
Page 68
Chart Solutions of Transient Heat Conduction Problems
Time History
Any Position, x
Heisler Charts (by Heisler, 1947)
Infinite Plate
Biot Number, hL/k
x/L
1

0.9

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.1 100
T(x,t) - T

T
i
- T

0
1
Page 69
Chart Solutions of Transient Heat Conduction Problems
Heat Flow
Heisler Charts (by Heisler, 1947)
Infinite Plate
Q/Q
o


hL/k
10

1

0.5 0.1

0.05

0.01

0.001

50

20

40

Fo Bi
k
h
2
2
2
=
ot
) ( Where,

= T T cV Q
o o

Page 70
Lumped System Analysis
Solved Example
Determination of Time required to cool
Aluminium Ball
= 2700 kg/m
3
c = 900 J/kg K
k = 205 W/mK
( )
m 0262 . 0
3
R
L
m 0786 . 0 4 / V 3 R
10 037 . 2
2700
5 . 5
density
mass
R
3
4
V
c
3 / 1
3 3
= =
= =
= = = =

t
t
5.5 kg
T
fluid
= 15C
h = 58 W / m
2
. C
Time required to cool the
aluminium ball to 95C ?
T
initial
=290C
Volume
Radius
Characteristic
Length
s 1357 t
) t . 10 1 . 9 exp( 3.4375
) t . 10 1 . 9 exp(
275
80
15 290
15 95
s / 10 1 . 9
0786 . 0 900 2700
58 3
cR
h 3
cV
hA
C 290 T
C 15 T
C 95 T
t .
cV
hA
exp
T T
T T
4
4
4
0
0
=
=
= =

=


= =
=
=
=
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
=

Page 71
Lumped System Analysis
Solved Example
The temperature of a gas stream is to be measured by
a thermocouple whose junction can be approximated
as a 1mm diameter sphere (shown aside)
Determine how long it will take for the thermocouple to
read 99% of initial temperature difference
Gas T


h=210 W/m
2
C
How long will it take for the
thermocouple to read 99 %
of Initial Temperature
difference
?
L
c
= V/A
s
= (1/6)D = (1/6)x0.001 = 1.67x10
-4
m

Bi = hL/k = (210x 1.67x10
-4
) x 35 = 0.001 < 0.1
Therefore, lumped system analysis is applicable.

In order to read 99% of initial temperature difference
T
i
T

between the junction and the gas, we must


have


Temperature Measurement by Thermocouples
Junction (Sphere)
D= 1mm
= 8500 kg/m
3
k = 35 W/mK
c = 320 J/kg K
Thermocouple Wire
01 . 0
T T
T T
0
=

Page 72
Lumped System Analysis
Solved Example
The temperature of a gas stream is to be measured by
a thermocouple whose junction can be approximated
as a 1mm diameter sphere (shown aside)
Determine how long it will take for the thermocouple to
read 99% of initial temperature difference
Gas T


h=210 W/m
2
C
How long will it take for the
thermocouple to read 99 %
of Initial Temperature
difference
?
t = 10s
Temperature Measurement by Thermocouples
Junction (Sphere)
D= 1mm
= 8500 kg/m
3
k = 35 W/mK
c = 320 J/kg K
Thermocouple Wire
Time
| | t ). pcV / hA ( exp 01 . 0
T T
T T
0
= =

1
4
c
s
s 462 . 0
10 67 . 1 320 8500
210
cL
h
cV
hA

=

= =

| | 01 . 0 t ). 462 . 0 ( exp =
Page 73
Transient Conduction in
Semi-infinite Solids
Solved Example
A water pipe is to be buried in soil at
sufficient depth from the surface to prevent
freezing in winter.
What minimum depth is required to
prevent the freezing of pipe when soil is at
uniform temperature of T
i
= 10 C, the
surface is subjected to a uniform temperature
of T
0
= -15 C continuously for 50 days.
Also the pipe surface temperature should
not fall below 0 C
Page 74
Transient Conduction in
Semi-infinite Solids
Solved Example
What burial depth is needed to
prevent freezing of the pipe ?



SOIL
Water Pipe
(to be buried)
?
T
surface
= -15 C
Condition : T
pipe

wall
should not fall below 0 C
T
soil
= 10 C
Page 75
T(x,t) - T
surface
T
initial
- T
surface
t 2
x
Function, Error
o
=
Temperature Distribution in
Semi-infinite Solid
Page 76
Determination of Burial depth
graph) (from 0.6 , 6 . 0 ) , ( For
6 . 0
15 10
15 0 ) , (
) , (
0
0
= =
=
+
+
=


=
u
u
t x
T T
T t x T
t x
i
by, given is function error the
3600s 24 50 t and / 10 0.2 For
2 -6

o = = s m
x 538 . 0
3600 24 50 10 0.2 2
x
t 2
x

6 -
=

= =
o

Page 77
Determination of Burial depth
m
x
12 . 1
0.538
0.6
x
6 . 0 538 . 0
= =
=
The pipe should be buried at least to a depth of
1.12 m to prevent freezing.
Page 78
Application of Heisler Charts
Aluminium Slab
Thickness=10cm
= 8.4x10
-5
m
2
/s
= 2700 kg/m
3
c = 900 J/kg K
k = 215 W/mK
T
fluid
= 100C
h = 1200 W / m
2
. C
Mid-plane Temperature and Surface
Temperature after 1 min?
T
initial
=500C
Page 79
Determination of Mid plane Temperature
2L=10 cm ; L = 5 cm ; t = 1min = 60 s

t/L
2
= (8.4x10
-5
x 60) / 0.05
2
= 2.016
Bi = hL/k = (1200x0.05) x 215 = 0.28

Using above two parameters in Heisler Chart,
C 372 ) 100 500 ( 68 . 0 100 T
68 . 0
T T
T T
0
= + =
=

Page 80
Determination of Surface Temperature
For x/L = 1 and Bi = 0.28,
C 36 . 339 ) 100 372 ( 88 . 0 100 T
88 . 0
T T
T T
0
= + =
=

Page 81
Energy Loss
h
2
t/k
2
= (1200
2
x8.4x10
-5
x 60) / 215
2
= 0.157
Bi = hL/k = (1200x0.05) x 215 = 0.28

Using above 2 parameters in Heisler Chart for

Heat flow, Q/Q
0
= 0.32
( )
( )( )( )( )
2 6
0
0 0
m / J 10 97.2
400 1 . 0 900 2700
) T T )( L 2 ( c
A
T T cV
A
Q
=
=
=

Page 82
Heat removed per unit surface area
2 6
6
m / J 10 1 . 31
10 2 . 97 32 . 0
A
Q
=
=

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