Species Interactions & Community Ecology

What is a community?
A set of populations of different species living in
a defined area at the same time
What is Community Ecology?
Interactions among species as well as with
their environment
Like individuals in a population, species
within a community show structure:
species number (richness) & distribution
= Diversity
Types of Direct Interactions
Mutualism
(+,+)
Symbiotic interaction between 2 species that
benefits both
Fungal mycorrhizae on plant roots
Cleaner wrasses
Estimated to pollinate
73% of crops in the US
Consumption (Predation, Herbivory)
(+,-)
When individuals of one species consume individuals of
another
Predators
Herbivores
Predation Can Drive Population Cycles
Predation and herbivory = selective pressures that
lead to defensive adaptations
Parasitism
(+,-)
A symbiotic relationship in which the parasite
(a type of predator) lives within or on the surface of a host;
does not immediately kill the host
Competition (Inter- or Intraspecific) (-
,-)
Interaction that occurs when > 1 individual of a species
(Intraspecific) OR 2+ species (Interspecific) utilize a
common resource within a habitat
Rocky Intertidal
Coral Reef
Control of Salmonella enteritidis
illnesses using competitive
interactions
Competitive Exclusion
One individual or species is
an effective competitor

Exclusion of other
individuals or species from
a resource occurs
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-6COob_bymw
Fundamental versus Realized Niches
Balanus
Resource
Partitioning:
Divide common
resource use by
specializing
Both spatial &
temporal
Can lead to character
displacement =
evolution of unique
traits best suited to
resources used
Indirect Interactions
Activities of 1 species can play a dramatic role in determining the
composition of a food web beyond direct interactions
Major Players in Ecological Communities
Producers (autotrophs,
photosynthesize)
1 Consumers
(heterotrophs)
2 Consumers
(heterotrophs)
3, 4 Consumers
(heterotrophs)
Total Biomass of a
Community
= Different Trophic (Energy) Levels
Decomposers/D
etritivores
Detritivores: Consume organic matter;
Derive energy from detritus
(dead, organic material)

Decomposers: Release inorganic molecules
from organic materials to be used by producers
Energy Flow through Food Chains:
Simplified View
Terrestrial Food Chain with
Trophic Levels
Producers
1 Consumers
2 Consumers
Trophic Pyramid
Energy supply limits the height of
the trophic pyramid
Pyramid of Energy
Pyramid of Biomass
Keystone Species
Species with an analogous role to that of a keystone in an
archway
Species with strong or wide-reaching impact out of
proportion to its abundance
5.6
Remove the keystone species and the food web collapses
Trophic cascade: cascading effects throughout food web; changes
in top predators can affect organisms through all trophic levels
(rank in the feeding hierarchy)
Ecological Succession
A process of community development over time following a
disturbance
Species in one stage of development replaced by different
species (10s 1000s years)
Sand dunes
Old-fields
Northern
freshwater bogs
Primary Succession
- Change in species composition in a previously uninhabited
environment
- No pre-existing soil

Examples: post-volcanism, glaciation, or new land formation

- bare rock colonized by lichens, then grasses, shrubs, trees
Pioneer Community

Secondary Succession
Change in species composition after a disturbance destroys
vegetation; soil is already present
Examples: abandoned farmland, areas burned by forest fire
Old-Field
Succession
Pond
Succession
Does succession really lead to climax
communities?

- The stability of a climax community (e.g. forest)
depends on lifespan of organisms compared to
human life span.

- Mature communities are ACTUALLY in continual
disturbance, not stable
(although maintains uniform appearance)
Introduced (non-native, exotic) Species
Species that have been brought (directly or indirectly)
by human activity to a region where they previously
had never been found
Why are introduced species
dangerous?
Introduced species & native species have
not evolved together (no defenses)


Competition for resources
Indirect effects
Photo: SCDNR
1mm
Dreissena polymorpha
Zebra mussel
Caspian Sea native
Mid-1980s ballast
H
2
O
Filters algae
(phytoplankton) &
zooplankton
$5 billion cost per
year to control
Found at densities
up to 700,000/m
2

http://nas.er.usgs.gov/taxgroup/mollusks/z
ebramussel/
5.9
Strayers results pp. 86-87
How can we respond to invasive species?
CONTROL

ERADICATION

PREVENTION
Think individually for 3-4 minutes, pair for 2-3
minutes, share
Earths Major Biomes
What IS a biome?
A large, relatively distinct terrestrial region with
similar climate, soil, plants, and animals regardless
of where in the world it occurs.
BIOME
How does climate shape terrestrial biomes?
Temperature
driven
Precipitation
driven
Elevation Affects Biomes
Changes in vegetation with increasing elevation
resembles changes in vegetation in going from warmer
to colder climates
Arizona
Rain Shadow Effect
Example: California