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Monsoon Session 2014 @NIT Calicut
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S7 B. Tech. Monsoon 2014


CY 3011 LUBRICANTS AND ADHESIVES





What is a lubricant ?


A substance introduced to reduce friction
between moving surfaces
Lubricus= Slippery (Latin)
Early concept of lubrication was slipperiness
and a lubricant was considered as one
promoting sliding.
Why is it needed?
Reduces friction
Helps to reduce tear and wear
Acts as a coolant
Prevents corrosion
Keeps out dirt
Acts as a seal

Major companies


.
Adhesive
An adhesive is any substance that, when
applied to the surfaces of materials, binds the
surfaces together and resists separation.

The term "adhesive" may be used
interchangeably with glue, cement, mucilage
or paste.

Why is it needed?
The use of adhesives offers many advantages over other binding
techniques such as sewing, welding, bolting etc.


These advantages include :

The ability to bind different materials together
The ability to distribute stress more efficiently across
the joint
Cost effectiveness of an easily mechanized process
Improvement in aesthetic(std) design
Increased design flexibility
Major companies
United Gilsonite
Laboratories
(German)
MAPEI
Surfaces
We need to know the features of surfaces
onto which the lubricant/ adhesive is to be
tried.

Let us initially go into it!
Surfaces
Different surfaces
Metals, Ceramics, Polymers etc.
Evaluation of surface features
Surface structure and properties
Substrate, work hardened layer, amorphous
layer, oxide layer, adsorbed gases,
contaminants

Metals

o Metal (from Greek mtallon) - mine, quarry, metal

o The atoms of metallic substances are closely positioned to neighbouring
atoms in one of two common arrangements.

o The first arrangement is known as body-centered cubic. In this
arrangement, each atom is positioned at the centre of eight others.

o The other is known as face-centered cubic. In this arrangement, each
atom is positioned in the centre of six others.

o The ongoing arrangement of atoms in these structures forms a crystal.
Hume-Rothery rules
Named after William Hume -Rothery
A set of basic rules describing the conditions
under which an element could dissolve in a
metal, forming a solid solution.
There are two sets of rules, one which refers
to substitutional solid solutions, and another
which refers to intertstitial solid solutions.
Substitutional Solid Solution Rules
For substitutional solid solutions, the Hume-Rothery rules are:

The atomic radii of the solute and solvent atoms must differ by no
more than 15%


The crystal structures of solute and solvent must match
Complete solubility occurs when the solvent and solute have the
same valency
A metal will dissolve into a metal of higher valency to a greater
extent than one of lower valency.
The solute and solvent should have similar electronegativity.
(If the electronegativity difference is too great, the metals will tend
to form intermetallic compounds instead of solid solutions.)

Foundations of Materials Science and Engineering, 4th ed., W. Smith and J.
Hashemi, pp.139-140 (2006).
Interstitial solid solutions
Solute atoms must be smaller than the
interstitial sites in the solvent lattice.
The solute and solvent should have similar
electronegativity
Hume-Rothery Rules". Van Nostrand's Scientific Encyclopedia. John Wiley &
Sons, Inc. 2002.
Metal Surface Texture

Lay
Shows the direction of the predominant
surface pattern
Flaws
Random irregularities
(cracks, holes, scratches)
Waviness
Recurrent deviation from a flat surface , much like
waves on the surface.
LAY
Surface Roughness
Consists of closely spaced , irregular
deviations on a scale smaller than that for
waviness
Measured using a profilometer

Roughness expressions
CLA
RMS



CLA = (y
a
+ y
b
+y
c
+)
n


a b
c

d
e
f
g
h
y
x
Surface Profile
Central ( Datum) line
(Y
a
+ y
b
+y
c
+)
n
(Y
a
+ y
b
+y
c
+)
n
RMS = [ (y
a

2
+ y
b
2
+ y
c
2
++ y
n
2
)/n]
1/2



1

2
2

RMS 63 is a smooth surface finish, RMS 125 is an average
manufacturing surface, RMS 25 is a very clean smooth surface
finish.

My cell phone has an RMS of around 32, smoother would make it too slippery.

A magazine cover is about 16.
A business card is between 32 and a 16..
A mirror or window is about 4.
RMS value is generally 11% higher than the Ra value for the same surface
roughness.


Density measurements
Crystalline areas are generally more densely
packed than amorphous(irregular) areas.
This results in a higher density, up to 15%
depending on the material.
High quality surfaces
possess low coefficient
of friction.





Contaminant ( 1-100nm)
Adsorbed gas ( 1nm)
Oxide ( 10-100 nm)
Amorphous ( 1-100 nm)
Work hardened
( 1-100 micron)




METAL SUBSTRATE
Ceramics
A ceramic is an inorganic, non-metallic solid prepared by the
action of heat and subsequent cooling.

Ceramic materials may have a crystalline or partly crystalline
structure, or may be amorphous (e.g., a glass).


Bearing parts from ceramics
Most chip resistors are of the so-called thick film construction, where patterns of
inks containing glass frit and a mix of metals and oxides are printed onto a
ceramic substrate
o Simple crystal structures containing ionic or
covalent bonds, or a mixture of the two.
o Magnesium oxide (used for furnace linings)- is
an ionic compound with cubic structure

o Silicon carbide- Covalent bonds and a
tetrahedral structure similar to that of
diamond.
o Complex silicate structures: The majority
of ceramic materials, in particular those
derived from clay, sand or cement,
contain the element silicon in the form of
silicates.
o The arrangements are many, involving
both chains of silicate ions, double chains
and links in sheet form
Technical ceramics can be classified into three distinct
material categories:

Oxides: alumina, beryllia, ceria, zirconia

Nonoxides: carbide, boride, nitride, silicide

Composite materials: particulate reinforced, fiber reinforced,
combinations of oxides and nonoxides

Carbon-Ceramic ( SiC) Disk Brake




Grain size


The main disadvantage of Ceramics as compared to Metals is their low fracture
toughness.

Toughness is a bulk mechanical property of a material; however it correlates
with its wear resistance particularly when the wear is a result of abrasive action
.

Fine grain structure allows to decrease the size of the surface micro-asperities
after the surface finish operation resulting in lower coefficient of friction.




Silicon nitride rocker thruster
( Left: on test stand ; Right :test with
propellants)
Toughness
Toughness is a measure of the energy a
sample can absorb before it breaks.
If the height of a triangle is strength, and the
base of the triangle is strain, then the area is
proportional to strength times strain.


Since strength is proportional to the force
needed to break the sample, and strain is
measured in units of distance (the distance the
sample is stretched), then strength times strain
is force times distance.
Force times distance is energy!
Critical flaw size
Critical flaw size (the size of a flaw that results in rapid fracture)

Effect of flaw size on the fracture strength of a ceramic material is expressed by
the Griffith equation:

C
=K
IC
/*Y( a)+
where:
K
IC
stress-intensity factor
a the flaw size;
Y geometry factor
According to the equation flaws of lower size result in increased material
toughness and higher wear resistance.
Flaw size is generally proportional to the grain size.


Homogeneous distribution of the matrix particles size and
pores size, second phase particles (toughening particles)
incorporated between the matrix particles, aid phase (binders,
etc.) locating at the grains boundaries results in lowering the
flaw size and consequently in increase of the fracture strength
(according to the Griffith equation).
Higher fracture strength causes higher wear resistance.












Polymer surface


Does not corrode but degrade.

Strength is low compared to metals
but has low frictional
characteristics.
Used to make bearings, gears, seals
etc.

Hard, strong
Hard, tough
Soft, tough
Brinell Hardness Number

A steel or tungsten carbide ball of 10 mm dia is pressed against
a surface with a load ( kg).

The ratio of load P to the curved area of indentation is Brinell
Hardness
HB = 2P/{ (D) [ D- (D
2 -
d
2
)
1/2
} kg/mm
2

D is the diameter of the ball and d is the diameter of the
impression in mm
Hardness and Resilience

H= cY
where Y is the yield stress, c= constant

Modulus of Resilience= Y
2
/2E
E= Youngs modulus
A piece of steel has a hardness of 480 HB
( kg/mm2). Find the modulus of resilience
of this material , If E= 1400 MPa.

Take C = 3.

(MULTIPLY kg/mm2 WITH 9.807 TO CONVERT
INTO MPa)


WE ARE GOING THROUGH AUGUST 2014!
Augusts birth flower is gladiolus or poppy,
meaning:
beauty
strength of character and
love
BASE OILS
Lubricants and adhesives are developed
based on different oils

Their flow features control the wetting of
the surfaces ( metal, ceramic or polymer)
for effective application
We now deal with:
Surface Tension
Viscosity Measurement
Newtonian and Non Newtonian Fluids

Melt Flow etc.


Surface Tension
The force in Newton acting at right angles
along the surface of a liquid one metre in
length.

N/m
Surface tension- Determination
Stalagmometer method
Compares an experimental liquid with a reference
liquid

e = r x (nr de/ ne dr)
ne = number of drops of experimental liquid in a
certain volume
nr = number of drops of reference liquid
de = density of experimental liquid
dr = density of the reference liquid

Equal volumes of ethyl alcohol and water gave
50 drops and 30 drops respectively. Calculate
the surface tension of ethyl alcohol.
Given that surface tension of water is
7.2 x 10-2 Nm-1, density of water 996 kg/m3
and that of ethyl alcohol is 865 kg/m3.
How many times a water drop is heavier than a
drop of ethyl alcohol?

3.75 x 10-2 N/m
mr/me = r/ e
= 1.92
Capillary rise method
= rhdg/(2cos )
r= inner radius of capillary
h= height to which the liquid rises in the
capillary
d= density of the liquid
g= acceleration due to gravity
= contact angle

A liquid having density of 0.90 g/cm3 rises in a
capillary of radius 0.1 mm upto a height of 8
cm .Assume perfect wetting . Find the surface
tension.
3.53 x 10-2 kg/s2 ( F= ma ; 1N= 1 kg m s-2)
3.53 x 10-2 N/m

Viscosity- Capillary viscometers

These devices also are known as glass capillary viscometers
or Ostwald viscometers, named after Wilhelm Ostwald.
Another version is the Ubbelohde viscometer.

U-shaped glass tube held vertically in a controlled
temperature bath.
. The time taken for the level of the liquid to pass between
two designated marks is proportional to the kinematic
viscosity
Viscosity

Falling Sphere method

Stokes law is the basis of the falling sphere viscometer,.

The fluid is kept stationary in a vertical glass tube.
A sphere of known size and density is allowed to descend
through the liquid.

If correctly selected, it reaches terminal viscosity, which can
be measured by the time it takes to pass two marks on the
tube.


A series of steel ball bearings of different diameter is normally
used in the classic experiment to improve the accuracy of the
calculation.
Viscosity
Stokes Law
= *2 g r
2
(ds - dl)]/ 9v



A steel ball ( density= 8 x 10
3
kg/m3) with 1 mm radius falls 10 cm
through a viscous liquid ( density = 2 x 10
3
kg/m3) in 20 seconds.
Find the absolute viscosity of the liquid.
2.6 kg m
-1
s
-1

2.6 Pa s
Newtons law
Laminar ( streamlined ) flow
The tangential force depends on:
Area of contact between two adjacent layers (A)
Velocity difference between the adjacent layers
(dv)
The distance between adjacent layers (dx)
Hence F A dv/dx

F= A dv/dx


Supplementary notes..
Dimensions
F A dv/dx

F= A dv/dx


= F/ A (dv/dx)

= F dx/ A dv

= Nm/m
2
( m/s)
= N s m
-2

=
Pa.s
CGS: 1 Poise = 1 dynes s cm-2 = 0.1 Ns m-2


Viscosity coefficients

Viscosity coefficients can be defined in two ways:

Dynamic viscosity, also absolute viscosity, the more usual one
(typical units Pas, Poise, P);

Kinematic viscosity is the dynamic viscosity divided by the
density (typical units cm
2
/s, Stokes, St).

Viscosity is a tensorial quantity that can be decomposed in
different ways into two independent components. The most
usual decomposition yields :
Shear viscosity
bulk viscosity

Shear viscosity, the most important one, often
referred to as simply viscosity, describing the
reaction to applied shear stress; simply put, it
is the ratio between the pressure exerted on
the surface of a fluid, in the lateral or
horizontal direction, to the change in velocity
of the fluid as you move down in the fluid (this
is what is referred to as a velocity gradient.).

Volume viscosity (also called bulk viscosity or
second viscosity) becomes important only for
such effects where fluid compressibility is
essential.
Extensional viscosity, a linear combination of
shear and bulk viscosity, describes the reaction to
elongation, widely used for characterizing
polymers.
For example, at room temperature, water has a
dynamic shear viscosity of about 1.010
3
Pas
and motor oil of about 25010
3
Pas.

Viscosities of materials
Substance Viscosity
( MPa s)
Air 10
-5

Water 10
-3

Glycerol 10
Polymer melts 10
2
-10
6


Viscosity of blends
The viscosity of the blend of two or more liquids can be estimated using the
Refutas equation.
The calculation is carried out in three steps.
The first step is to calculate the Viscosity Blending Number (VBN) (also called the
Viscosity Blending Index) of each component of the blend:

where v is the kinematic viscosity in centistokes (cSt). It is important that the
kinematic viscosity of each component of the blend be obtained at the same
temperature.
The next step is to calculate the VBN of the blend, using this equation:



where x
X
is the mass fraction of each component of the blend.

Once the viscosity blending number of a blend has been calculated using equation
(2), the final step is to determine the kinematic viscosity of the blend by the equation
for v:



where VBN
Blend
is the
viscosity blending
number of the blend.

shear stress
shear rate
According to
Newton
r
Pseudoplastic : shear-thinning fluids
Dilatant : shear-thickening fluids

n> 1 Dilatants
log n=1 Newtonian
n<1 Pseudoplastic
log *
n is the flow behaviour index.



Time dependa(e)nt and time independa(e)nt
fluids
Rheopectic fluid: increases with increasing t
Thixotropic fluid, decreases with increasing t






Leonardo da vinci (1452-1519)



Proposed the fundamental principles
of friction and lubrication
Classical laws of friction
Frictional force is proportion to the applied
load
Coefficient of friction is independent of the
apparent area of contact
Static coefficient is greater than dynamic
coefficient
Coefficient of friction is independent of sliding
speed
Coefficient of friction is material dependent

Types of lubrication

Thick-film lubrication Interposing a fluid film that completely
separates the sliding surfaces.
Hydrodynamic lubrication.
In this, the two moving parts are separated by a thick film of
lubricant, about 1000A thick.
This type of lubrication occurs in machine parts of low load and
high speed such as in clocks, sewing machines (delicate
instruments).
The coefficient of friction is low; typically 0.001 to 0.03.
Boundary lubrication
A condition that lies between unlubricated sliding and fluid
film lubrication is referred to as boundary lubrication.
Thin film lubrication
It occurs in machine parts of high load and low speed. Here
thick film of lubricant cannot be maintained between the
moving surfaces but the lubricants are adsorbed physically /
chemically on the metal surfaces. The lubricant film thickness is
as low as 2-3-molecule thickness with the frictional coefficient
being 0.05 to 0.15.
Extrerme pressure lubrication


This mechanism occurs under conditions of high load and high speed.
Under these conditions, the lubricant may vaporize / decompose due
to local heat.
Special additives called extreme pressure additives are used with
lubricants to overcome this difficulty.
Organic compounds containing active groups such as chlorine,
phosphorous, sulphur are used as extreme pressure additives.
At high temperatures, the additives react with metals giving metallic
chlorides / sulphides / phosphides possessing high melting points.
Variation of (viscosity)
with temperature T



Viscosity



Temperature
Too Thick
when
cold
Viscosity / Temperature Relationship
Thick
SAE 40
SAE 10W40
SAE
10W
Too Thin
when
hot
Increasing
Viscosity
Thin
Winter starting
temperature
Engine operating
temperature
100
o
c 0
o
c
Viscosity index

Measure of fluids change of viscosity with
temperature.
Empirical number
Higher the VI lower will be the change of viscosity
with temperature
Indicator of temperature range of operations












SUV ( Saybolt Universal Viscosity)


Cylindrical brass cup in the bottom of which
is an orifice of specific dimension.

The cup is surrounded by an oil bath.

At the test temperature, the time required
for 50 mil of the liquid to run down through
the orifice is noted.
Unit is sec.

Calculation
VI= [( L-U)/ (L-H) ] x 100
VI = Viscosity Index of the oil under test
L= Viscosity of a low viscosity standard oil
having a low VI at 100 F ( Typically gulf
oil)
H = Viscosity of a high viscosity standard oil
having a high VI at 100 F ( Typically Pennsylvanian
oil)
U = Viscosity of the test oil at 100 F




Try it
An oil has a SUV of 600 seconds at 100 F.
Pennsylvanian oil has a SUV of 500 sec at 100 F
while gulf oil has a SUV of 800 sec at 100 F.
Find the viscosity index of the experimental oil.


VI = 66.67



API gravity
A measure of how heavy or light a petroleum liquid is compared
to water.

If its API gravity is greater than 10, it is lighter and floats on
water; if less than 10, it is heavier and sinks.

API gravity is thus an inverse measure of the relative density of a
petroleum liquid and the density of water, but it is used to
compare the relative densities of petroleum liquids.

For example, if one petroleum liquid floats on another and is
therefore less dense, it has a greater API gravity.
The formula to obtain API gravity of petroleum liquids, from specific gravity (SG), is:


Effect of additives
Hydrodynamic effect
1. Einstein Equation (1906)
Viscosity of a dispersion can be represented as:

f
=
u
(1+2.5C)

C= volume fraction of spheres

u
= viscosity of the liquid where uniformly spherical
particles are distributed

2. Guth and Gold Equation ( 1938)

f
=
u
(1+2.5C+14.1 C
2
)
3. Guth Equation ( 1945) [ For non-spherical
particles]

f
=
u
(1+0.67 f C+ 1.62f
2
C
2
)
f is the shape factor, the ratio of the longest
to the shortest diameter of the particles

Flash Point

Lowest temperature at which the vapor above the
liquid will ignite under flame
Indicated safe maximum temperature of
operation.
Indicator of volatility
Measured in C

Why is it important?
The flash point of a volatile material is the
lowest temperature at which it can vaporize to
form an ignitable mixture in air.
Measuring a flash point requires an ignition
source.
At the flash point, the vapor may cease to burn
when the source of ignition is removed.

Why is it important.?
The flash point is not to be confused with the
autoignition temperature, which does not require an
ignition source, or the fire point, the temperature at
which the vapor continues to burn after being ignited.

Neither the flash point nor the fire point is dependent
on the temperature of the ignition source, which is
much higher.
Why is it important?
The flash point is often used as a descriptive characteristic
of liquids, and it is also used to help characterize the fire
hazards of liquids.

Flash point refers to both flammable liquids and
combustible liquids. There are various standards for
defining each term.
Liquids with a flash point less than 37.8 C (100 F) are
considered flammable, while liquids with a flash point
above it are considered combustible.


How it flashes?
Every liquid has a vapour pressure, which is a function of that
liquid's temperature.

As the temperature increases, the vapour pressure increases.
As the vapor pressure increases, the concentration of vapor of
the flammable liquid in the air increases. Hence, temperature
determines the concentration of vapour of the flammable
liquid in the air.

A certain concentration of vapour in the air is necessary to
sustain combustion, and that concentration is different for each
flammable liquid. The flash point of a flammable liquid is the
lowest temperature at which there will be enough flammable
vapour to ignite when an ignition source is applied.
Measurement-
open cup and closed cup
There are two basic types of flash point
measurement: open cup and closed cup.
In open cup devices the sample is contained in an
open cup which is heated, and at intervals a flame is
brought over the surface. The measured flash point
will actually vary with the height of the flame above
the liquid surface, and at sufficient height the
measured flash point temperature will coincide with
the fire point. The best known example is the
Cleveland open cup (COC).
Closed cup testers
There are two types of closed cup testers: non-equilibrium,
such as Pensky-Martens where the vapours above the liquid
are not in temperature equilibrium with the liquid, and
equilibrium, such as Small Scale (commonly known as
Setaflash) where the vapours are deemed to be in
temperature equilibrium with the liquid.
In both the above types, the cups are sealed with a lid
through which the ignition source can be introduced.
Closed cup testers normally give lower values for the flash
point than open cup (typically 510 C lower, or 918 F lower)
and are a better approximation to the temperature at which
the vapour pressure reaches the lower flammable limit.
ASTM D93, ISO 2719, DIN 51758
Methods for determining the flash point of a liquid are
specified in many standards. For example, testing by the
Pensky-Martens closed cup method is detailed in ASTM D93,
ISO 2719, DIN 51758.

Fuel Flash point

Ethanol (70%) 16.6 C (61.9 F)
Diesel >62 C (144 F)
Jet fuel >60 C (140 F)
Kerosene (paraffin) >3872 C (100162 F)
Vegetable oil (canola) 327 C (621 F)
Cloud Point and Pour Point

Cloud point- Temperature at which cloudiness
appears
Pour Point -Lowest temperature at which a fluid
will flow
Latter indicates lowest operating temperature
Measured in C

A good lubricant possesses ..
:
High boiling point ( Flash point)
Low freezing point ( Pour point)
High viscosity index
Thermal stability
Hydraulic Stability
Demulsibility
Corrosion prevention
High resistance to oxidation















Degradation/Combustion

Calculations


Flue gas analysis








Essentially an exothermic reaction

Oil + Oxygen = Products + Heat
More heat content Lower heat content


Typically,

C(S) + O2 (g) CO2(g) + 97 kcal
Combustion Wt. of oxygen needed
(g)
Volume of oxygen ( m
3
)
C + O
2
CO
2

a g or m
3

(a x 32)/ 12 a x 1
H
2
+ O.5 o
2
H
2
o
y g or m3
(y x 16)/2 Y x 0.5
CO + O.5 o
2
CO
2

z g or m3
(z x 16)/28 Z x .0.5
S+ O
2
SO
2

p g or m3
(p x 32)/32 P x 1
3. Air contains 21 % of oxygen by volume and 23 % oxygen
by mass.

1kg of oxygen is supplied by (1 x 100)/23 = 4.35 kg of air

1 m3 of oxygen is supplied by (1 x 100)/21 = 4.76 m3 of
air

4. 28.94 g/ mol is taken as the molar mass of air

5. Minimum oxygen required for combustion is:
Theoretical oxygen - Oxygen present in the fuel



FUNCTIONAL POLYMERS 2011
Problem 1
What could be the weight and volume of air
required for the combustion of 1 kg of
carbon?

12 g of C needs 32 g of oxygen.
1kg of carbon needs (32/12) x 1000= 2667 g =
2.667 kg

Wt of air required = (100/23) x 2.667 = 11.59
kg
32 g of oxygen occupies 22.4 l.

2667 g will occupy 22.4/32 x 2667 = 1866.9 L

Volume of air = (100/21) x 1866.9 = 8890 L =
8.89 m3
Carbon residue
Weighed amount of lubricant is heated in a
silica crucible having a close fitting cover with
a small opening.

Carbon residue= (wt of residue/wt of sample)
x 100


Liquid lubricants
Liquid lubricants are fluids that prevent
friction and wear between two machine
parts.
Common liquid lubricants include water-
based lubricants and synthetic oils.
Many liquid lubricants can pollute the
environment, so proper disposal of used
lubricant is essential.
Mineral Oils

Mineral oils are usually made from
crude(impure) petroleum, which can be
processed to create fluids with varying
viscosity.
TYPICAL COMPOSITION OF
AN ENGINE OIL
Components
Base oils
Dispersants
Detergents
Anti-wear
Anti-oxidant
Pour point depressant
Anti-foam
Viscosity Improver
Quality oil
%
>70
0 to 7
0 to 3
0 to 2
0 to 3
0.2
0.001
5 to 15
100%











SMART LUBRICANTS














SAE Coding
The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) has established a
numerical code system for grading motor oils according to their
viscosity characteristics.

SAE viscosity gradings include the following, from low to high
viscosity: 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 40, 50 or 60.

The numbers 5, 10, 15 and 25 are suffixed with the letter W,
designating they are "winter" (not "weight") or cold-start
viscosity, at lower temperature.


Ref: Thomas R. Lynch, Process Chemistry of Lubricant Base Stocks,
CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 2008.
NR + SAE

ISNR -5 was dissolved in SAE Oil

Sample Code Amount of SAE 30 Oil
(ml)
Amount of NR
(g)
A1 250 5
A2 250 10
A3 250 15
A4 250 20
A5 250 25
SAMPLE POUR
POINT (c)
SAE
30(TURBO)
-9
A1 -11
A2 -14
A3 -17
A4 -19
A5 -21
SAE 60 -29
Synthetic Oils

Synthetic oils are man-made lubricants that have
greater operating ranges than mineral oil lubricants.
As a result, synthetic oils are better choices than
mineral oils in certain circumstances.
Esters, silicone fluid and fluorocarbons are examples
of synthetic oils.
Silahydrocarbons are synthetic oils composed, as the
name suggested, from hydrogen, silicon and carbon.
Silahydrocarbons have the potential to provide fluidity
and lubrication in space machinery.
Vegetable-Based Liquid Lubricants

Liquid lubricants can also be manufactured from
plant life. Sources of vegetable-based lubricants
include:
canola
palm oil
rapeseed
sunflower seed.


While more environmentally friendly than mineral and
synthetic oils, vegetable-based liquid lubricants are
rarely used in vehicles or machinery
Semi-solids
Grease
Grease is defined as a solid or semi-fluid
product which is a dispersion of a
thickening agent in a liquid lubricant along
with some additives.
Grease is a semisolid lubricant.
It generally consists of a soap emulsified
with mineral or vegetable oil.
The characteristic feature of greases is that
they possess a high initial viscosity, which
upon the application of shear, drops with
time. This change in viscosity, as we have
seen earlier , is called thixotropy.


Why use a Grease?
Grease offers unique characteristics which makes it
particularly useful in machine elements
Stay where it is put
Allows unattended service for long periods
(sealed for life)
Requires less frequent application for areas of
poor accessibility
Seals out contaminants
Operate over a wide temperature range
Solid additives can be used without concern of
settling out
Low leakage means they are effective in worn
equipment
Advantages over Oil
Grease stays in place because of semisolid nature
whereas oils flow away
Bearing designs simplified and maintenance work
reduced as there is no oil pump/sump
For long time or packed for life applications grease is
preferred e.g.. electric motors, wheel bearings of new
generation passenger cars, etc.
Grease works as a sealant in -
Dusty environment, cement plants, mining industries
etc.
Corrosive water in paper mills
Corrosive gases/liquids in chemical industries.
Sodium Based Calcium Based
Lithium Base
Non-Soap / Synthetic
Greases
Scheme
Oil
Soap
Grease -Additives

Teflon is added to some greases to improve their lubricating properties.

Gear greases consist of rosin oil, thickened with lime and mixed with mineral oil,
with some percentage of water. Special-purpose greases contain glycerol and
some esters. They are used, for example, in low-temperature conditions.

Some greases are labeled "EP", which indicates "extreme pressure". Under high
pressure or shock loading, normal grease can be compressed to the extent that
the greased parts come into physical contact, causing friction and wear.

EP grease contains solid lubricants, usually graphite and/or molybdenum
disulfide, to provide protection under heavy loadings. The solid lubricants bond
to the surface of the metal, and prevent metal-to-metal contact and the
resulting friction and wear when the lubricant film gets too thin.

Copper is added to some greases for high pressure applications, or where
corrosion could prevent dis-assembly of components later in their service life.
Scheme
Oil
Polymer
GREASES COMPOSITION
BASE OIL + THICKENER + ADDITIVES
( 75-85%) ( 10-15 %) ( 0-5%)


MINERAL
SYNTHETIC
VEGETABLE
SOAP BASE
NON-SOAP
POLYMERS
ANTI-OXIDANT
ANTI-CORROSION
EP/ANTI-WEAR
TACKINESS AGENT
SOLID FILLER
METAL DEACTIVATOR
STRUCTURE MODIFIER
Silicone grease
It is a waterproof grease made by combining a
silicone oil with a thickener.
Most commonly, the silicone oil is
polydimethylsiloxane and the thickener is
amorphous fumed silica.
Using this formulation, silicone grease is a
translucent white viscous paste, with exact
properties dependent on the type and
proportion of the components.
Silicone grease is commonly used for
lubricating and preserving rubber parts, such
as O-rings.
Additionally, silicone grease does not swell or
soften the rubber, which can be a problem
with hydrocarbon based greases.
It functions well as a corrosion-inhibitor and
lubricant for purposes that require a thicker
lubricant.
Dropping point
The lowest temperature at which a grease , when
heated under specific conditions, becomes
sufficiently fluid so that a drop will fall from a cup
having a hole of specific dimensions.
Shows the thermal stability of grease.
Lime soap greases have lower dropping point
than greases of sodium, lithium.
Can be increased by adding thickeners such as
carbon black.
Solid lubrication
Solids such as graphite and molybdenum
disulfide are widely used when normal
lubricants do not possess sufficient
resistance to load or temperature
extremes.
How is a Lubricant made?
BASE MATERIAL + ADDITIVES






FINISHED LUBRICANT
Peer reviewed
JOURNALS
Tribology Transactions
Journal of Synthetic Lubricants
Tribology Letters
Lubrication Science





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