Ch05 Lecture Cells

5
Cells: The Working Units

of Life
5 Cells: The Working Units of Life
5.1 What Features Make Cells the
Fundamental Units of Life?
5.2 What Features Characterize
Prokaryotic Cells?
5.3 What Features Characterize
Eukaryotic Cells?
5.4 What Are the Roles of Extracellular
Structures?
5.5 How Did Eukaryotic Cells Originate?
5.1 What Features Make Cells the Fundamental Units of Life?
Cell theory was the first unifying theory
of biology.
Cells are the fundamental units of life
All organisms are composed of cells
All cells come from preexisting cells
Implications of cell theory:
Functions of all cells are similar
Life is continuous
Origin of life was the origin of cells
Cells are small (mostly).
Exceptions: Bird eggs, neurons, some
algae, and bacteria cells
Figure 5.1 The Scale of Life (Part 1)

Figure 5.1 The Scale of Life (Part 2)

Cells are small because a high surface
area-to-volume ratio is essential.
Volume determines the amount of
chemical activity in the cell per unit time.
Surface area determines the amount of
substances that can pass the cell
boundary per unit time.
Figure 5.2 Why Cells Are Small (Part 1)

Figure 5.2 Why Cells Are Small (Part 2)

Most cells are < 200 m in size. To see
them, we use microscopes:
Magnification: Increases apparent size
Resolution: Clarity of magnified object
minimum distance two objects can be apart
and still be seen as two objects.
Two basic types of microscopes:
Light microscopesuse glass lenses and
light. Resolution = 0.2 m
Electron microscopeselectromagnets focus
an electron beam. Resolution = 0.2 nm
Copyright 2005 Pearson Prentice Hall, Inc.
Did you have breakfast this morning?
What did you eat this morning?

Where did that food go?

Imagine a balloon inside a vat of mud.

Whats inside and whats not?
Did you have breakfast this morning?
Figure 5.3 Looking at Cells (Part 1)



Pathology is a branch of medicine that
uses microscopy to analyze cells and
diagnose diseases.
Many methods are used, including
phase-contrast microscopy, staining the
cells with general or fluorescent dyes,
and electron microscopy.
The plasma membrane is the outer
surface of every cell, and has more or
less the same structure in all cells.
It is made of a phospholipid bilayer with
proteins and other molecules embedded.
It is not rigid, but more like an oily fluid in
which the proteins and lipids are in
constant motion.
The plasma membrane:
Is a selectively permeable barrier
Allows cells to maintain a constant
internal environment
Is important in communication and
receiving signals
Often has proteins for binding and
adhering to adjacent cells
Two types of cells: Prokaryotic and
eukaryotic
Bacteria and Archaea are prokaryotes.
The first cells were probably prokaryotic.
Eukarya are eukaryotesthe DNA is in
a membrane-enclosed compartment
called the nucleus.
Eukaryotes have other membrane-
enclosed compartments in which
specific chemical reactions occur.
This has allowed diversification of
functions in eukaryotic cells, and their
specialization into tissues.
5.2 What Features Characterize Prokaryotic Cells?
Prokaryotic cells are very small.
Individuals are single cells, but often
found in chains or clusters.
Prokaryotes are very successfulthey
can live on a diversity of energy sources
and some can tolerate extreme
conditions.
Prokaryotic cells:
Are enclosed by a plasma membrane
The DNA is contained in the nucleoid
Cytoplasm consists of cytosol (water
and dissolved material) and suspended
particles
Ribosomessites of protein synthesis
Figure 5.4 A Prokaryotic Cell

Most prokaryotes have a rigid cell wall
outside the plasma membrane.
Bacteria cell walls contain peptidoglycan.
Some bacteria have an additional outer
membrane.
Some bacteria have a slimy capsule of
polysaccharides.
Photosynthetic bacteria have an internal
membrane system that contains
molecules necessary for photosynthesis.
Others have internal membrane folds that
are attached to the plasma membrane;
they may function in cell division or in
energy-releasing reactions.
Some prokaryotes swim by means of
flagella, made of the protein flagellin.
Some bacteria have pilihairlike
structures projecting from the surface.
They help bacteria adhere to other cells.
Some rod-shaped bacteria have a
cytoskeleton made of the protein actin.
Figure 5.5 Prokaryotic Flagella (Part 1)

Figure 5.5 Prokaryotic Flagella (Part 2)

5.3 What Features Characterize Eukaryotic Cells?
Eukaryotic cells are up to ten times larger
than prokaryotes.
Eukaryotic cells have membrane-
enclosed compartments called
organelles.
Each organelle has a specific role in cell
functioning.
Compartmentalization allowed eukaryotic
cells to specialize and form the tissues
and organs of multicellular organisms.
Figure 5.7 Eukaryotic Cells (Part 1)




Organelles were first studied using light
microscopy.
Cell fractionation separates organelles for
study by chemical methods.
Figure 5.6 Cell Fractionation

Ribosomessites of protein synthesis.
Occur in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic
cells and have similar structure.
Ribosomes consist of ribosomal RNA
(rRNA) and more than 50 different
protein molecules.
In eukaryotes, ribosomes are free in the
cytoplasm, attached to the endoplasmic
reticulum, or inside mitochondria and
chloroplasts.
In prokaryotic cells, ribosomes float freely
in the cytoplasm.
The nucleus is usually the largest organelle.
Contains the DNA
Site of DNA replication
Site where gene transcription is turned on
or off
Assembly of ribosomes begins in a region
called the nucleolus
Figure 5.8 The Nucleus Is Enclosed by a Double Membrane (Part 1)

The nucleus is surrounded by two
membranesthe nuclear envelope.
Nuclear pores in the envelope control
movement of molecules between
nucleus and cytoplasm.
Figure 5.8 The Nucleus Is Enclosed by a Double Membrane (Part 2)

Some large molecules (e.g., proteins)
must have a certain amino acid
sequence known as a nuclear
localization signal (NLS) to cross the
nuclear envelope.
In the nucleus, DNA combines with
proteins to form chromatin in long, thin
threads called chromosomes.
Before cell division, chromatin
condenses, and individual
chromosomes are visible in the light
microscope.
Figure 5.9 Chromatin and Chromosomes

Nucleoplasm surrounds the chromatin,
and a network of structural proteins
(nuclear matrix) helps organize the
chromatin.
The nuclear lamina attaches to both the
chromatin and the nuclear envelope and
maintains nuclear shape.
The endomembrane system includes
the plasma membrane, nuclear
envelope, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi
apparatus, and lysosomes.
Tiny, membrane-surrounded vesicles
shuttle substances between the various
components.
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER): network of
interconnected membranes in the
cytoplasm; has large surface area.
Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER):
ribosomes are attached.
Newly made proteins enter the RER
lumen where they are modified, folded,
and transported to other regions.
Figure 5.10 The Endomembrane System (Part 1)


Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER):
more tubular, no ribosomes
Chemically modifies small molecules
such as drugs and pesticides
Hydrolysis of glycogen in animal cells
Synthesis of lipids and steroids
The Golgi apparatus is composed of
flattened sacs (cisternae) and small
membrane-enclosed vesicles.
Receives proteins from the RERcan
further modify them
Concentrates, packages, sorts proteins
In plant cells, polysaccharides for cell
walls are synthesized here
The cis region receives vesicles (a piece
of the ER that buds off) from the ER.
At the trans region, vesicles bud off from
the Golgi apparatus and are moved to
the plasma membrane or other
organelles.


Primary lysosomes originate from the
Golgi apparatus.
They contain digestive enzymes
macromolecules are hydrolyzed into
monomers.
Food molecules enter the cell by
phagocytosisa phagosome is formed.
Phagosomes fuse with primary
lysosomes to form secondary
lysosomes.
Enzymes in the secondary lysosome
hydrolyze the food molecules.
Figure 5.11 Lysosomes Isolate Digestive Enzymes from the Cytoplasm (Part 1)

Figure 5.11 Lysosomes Isolate Digestive Enzymes from the Cytoplasm (Part 2)

Lysosomes also digest cell materials
(autophagy).
Cell components are frequently destroyed
and replaced by new ones.
In the mitochondria, energy in fuel
molecules is transformed to the bonds
of energy-rich ATP: Cellular respiration.
Cells that require a lot of energy have a
lot of mitochondria.
Mitochondria have two membranes.
The inner membrane folds inward to form
cristae. This creates a large surface
area for proteins involved in cellular
respiration reactions.
The mitochondrial matrix contains
enzymes, DNA, and ribosomes.
Figure 5.12 A Mitochondrion Converts Energy from Fuel Molecules into ATP

Plastids occur only in plants and some
protists.
Chloroplasts: Site of photosynthesis
light energy is converted to the energy of
chemical bonds
Chloroplasts have a double membrane.
Figure 5.13 Chloroplasts Feed the World

Grana are stacks of thylakoidsmade of
circular compartments of the inner
membrane.
Thylakoids contain chlorophyll and other
pigments that harvest light energy for
photosynthesis.
Stromafluid in which grana are
suspended. The stroma contains DNA
and ribosomes.
Figure 5.14 Chloroplasts Are Everywhere

Other plastids:
Chromoplasts contain red, orange, and
yellow pigmentsgives color to flowers.
Leucoplasts store starches and fats.
Figure 5.15 Chromoplasts and Leucoplasts

Peroxisomes: Collect and break down
toxic byproducts of metabolism such as
H
2
O
2
, using specialized enzymes
Glyoxysomes: Only in plantslipids are
converted to carbohydrates for growth
Plant and protist cells have vacuoles:
Store waste products and toxic
compounds; some may deter herbivores
Provide structure for plant cellswater
enters the vacuole by osmosis, creating
turgor pressure.
Vacuoles (continued):
Store anthocyanins (pink and blue
pigments) in flowers and fruits; the colors
attract pollinators
Vacuoles in seeds have digestive enzymes
to hydrolyze stored food for early growth
Figure 5.16 Vacuoles in Plant Cells Are Usually Large

Freshwater protists may have contractile
vacuoles to expel excess water.
The vacuoles take in excess water that
enters the cell by osmosis; then expel it
by contracting, forcing water out through
a pore.
The cytoskeleton:
Supports and maintains cell shape
Holds organelles in position
Moves organelles
Involved in cytoplasmic streaming
Interacts with extracellular structures to
hold cell in place
The cytoskeleton has three components:
Microfilaments
Intermediate filaments
Microtubules
Figure 5.17 The Cytoskeleton

Microfilaments:
Help a cell or parts of a cell to move
Determine cell shape
Made from the protein actin
Actin has + and ends and polymerizes
to form long helical chains (reversible)
In muscle cells, actin filaments are
associated with the motor protein
myosin; interactions between the two
result in muscle contraction.
Microfilaments are also involved in the
formation of pseudopodia (pseudo,
false; podia, feet).
Figure 5.18 Microfilaments and Cell Movements

In some cells, microfilaments form a
meshwork just inside the plasma
membrane.
This provides structure, for example in
the microvilli that line the human
intestine.
Figure 5.19 Microfilaments for Support

Intermediate filaments:
Many different kinds in six molecular
classes
Tough, ropelike protein assemblages
Anchor cell structures in place
Resist tension
Microtubules:
Form rigid internal skeleton in some cells
Act as a framework for motor proteins
Made from the protein tubulina dimer
Have + and ends
Can change length rapidly by adding or
losing dimers
Cilia and eukaryotic flagella are made of
microtubules in 9 + 2 array.
Ciliashort, usually many present,
move with stiff power stroke and flexible
recovery stroke
Flagellalonger, usually one or two
present, movement is snakelike
Figure 5.20 Cilia

The nine microtubule doublets extend
into the basal body in the cytoplasm.
In the basal body, each doublet is joined
by another microtubule, making nine
triplets.
Centrioles are identical to basal bodies.
Involved in formation of the mitotic
spindleto which chromosomes attach
during cell division.
Motor proteins: undergo reversible
shape changes powered by ATP
hydrolysis.
Dynein binds to microtubule doublets and
allows them to slide past each other.
Nexin can cross-link the doublets and
prevent them from sliding, and the cilium
bends.
Figure 5.21 A Motor Protein Moves Microtubules in Cilia and Flagella

The motor protein kinesin binds to a
vesicle and walks it along by changing
shape.
Figure 5.22 A Motor Protein Drives Vesicles along Microtubules

Experiments to determine the function of
cellular components fall into two
categories:
Inhibition: A drug that inhibits a structure
or processdoes the function still
occur?
Mutation: Examine a cell that lacks the
gene for the structure or process
Figure 5.23 The Role of Microfilaments in Cell MovementShowing Cause and Effect in Biology

5.4 What Are the Roles of Extracellular Structures?
Extracellular structures are secreted to
the outside of the plasma membrane.
Example: The peptidoglycan cell wall of
bacteria.
In eukaryotes, extracellular structures
have a prominent fibrous
macromolecule in a gel-like medium.
Plant cell walls: Cellulose fibers are
embedded in other complex
polysaccharides and proteins.
Adjacent plant cells are connected by
plasma membrane-lined channels called
plasmodesmata.
Figure 5.24 The Plant Cell Wall

Plasmodesmata
Many animal cells are surrounded by an
extracellular matrix, composed of
fibrous proteins such as collagen, gel-
like proteoglycans (glycoproteins), and
other proteins.
Figure 5.25 An Extracellular Matrix

The extracellular matrix:
Holds cells together in tissues
Contributes to properties of bone,
cartilage, skin, etc.
Filters materials passing between
different tissues
Orients cell movements in development
and tissue repair
Plays a role in chemical signaling
The endomembrane system and cell
nucleus may have originated from the
inward folds of plasma membrane of
prokaryotes.
Enclosed compartments would have
allowed chemicals to be concentrated
and chemical reactions to proceed more
efficiently.
Figure 5.26 The Origin of Organelles (A)
Some organelles may have arose by
symbiosis (living together).
The endosymbiosis theory proposes
that mitochondria and plastids arose
when one cell engulfed another cell.
Figure 5.26 The Origin of Organelles (B)
Support for the endosymbiosis theory:
The discovery of a a single-celled
eukaryote, Hatena, that ingests a green
alga, Nephroselmis
The green alga loses most of its
structures and acts as a chloroplast
Figure 5.27 Endosymbiosis in Action

Ch05 Lecture Cells

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5

Cells: The Working Units

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