Traditional Square of Opposition

The traditional square of opposition is an

arrangement of lines that illustrates logically necessary
relations among the four kinds of categorical
propositions.
A collection of logical relationships traditionally
embodied in a square diagram.

Opposition
Standard-form categorical propositions having the
same subject and terms and the same predicate terms
may differ from each other in quality, or in quantity, or
in both. Any kind of differing has been traditionally
called opposition. The term is used even when there is
no apparent disagreement between the propositions.

Four relations in the traditional

square of opposition
1.
2.
3.
4.

Contradictory= opposite truth values

Contrary= at least one is false (not both true)
Subcontrary= at least one is true (not both false)
Subalternation= truth flows downward, falsity flows
upward

Contradictories

 Two propositions are contradictories if one is the

denial or negation of the other- that is, if they
cannot both be true and cannot both be false.
They are opposed in both quality (one affirms, the
other denies) and quantity (one refers to all, and the
other to some). Of the pair, exactly one is true and
exactly one is false.
A and O are contradictories, as E and I.
Examples:
A&O
E&I

All judges are lawyers

Some judges are not lawyers
No politicians are idealists
Some politicians are idealists

Contraries

Two propositions are said to be contraries if they cannot

both be true- that is, if the truth of one entails the falsity of
the other
The traditional account of categorical propositions held
that universal propositions (A and E) having the same
subject and predicate terms but differing in quality (one
affirming, the other denying) were contraries.
Same subject and predicate, both universal, differs in
quality
If A is given as true, the corresponding E proposition is
false (because at least one must be false), and if an E
proposition is given as true, the corresponding A
proposition is false.

A&E

All cats are animals.

No cats are animals.

All poets are dreamers.

No poets are dreamers
E&A

No cats are dogs.

All cats are dogs.
But if an A proposition is given as false, the corresponding
E proposition could be either true or false, in this case the
E proposition has logically undetermined truth value.
Similarly, if an E proposition is given as false, the
corresponding A proposition has logically undetermined
truth value.

Contraries cannot both be true, but they can both be

false

All animals are cats

No animals are cats

Subcontraries

Two propositions are said to be subcontraries if they

cannot both be false, although they may both be true

Expresses partial opposition

Same subject and predicate, both particular, differs in
quality.
The traditional account held that particular
propositions (I and O) having the same subject and
predicate terms but differing in quality (one
affirming the other denying are subcontraries).

If I proposition is given as false, the corresponding O

proposition is true (because at least one must be true), and if
an O proposition is given as false, the corresponding I
proposition is true. But if either an I or an O proposition is
given as true, then the corresponding proposition could be
either true or false, thus in this case the corresponding
proposition would have logically undetermined truth values.
I&O

Some cats are dogs

Some cats are not dogs

Some diamonds are precious stones

Some diamonds are not precious stones
O&I

Some cats are not animals

Some cats are animals

Subalternation

When two propositions have the same subject and the

same predicate terms, and agree in quality (both affirming
or both denying) but differ in quantity (one universal, the
other particular), they are called corresponding
propositions. A proposition has a corresponding I
proposition, and the E proposition has a corresponding O
proposition.
This opposition between a universal proposition and its
corresponding particular proposition is known as
subalternation.

A&I
All spiders are eight-legged animals
Some spiders are eight-legged animals
All politicians are liars
Some politicians are liars

E&O
No whales are fishes
Some whales are not fishes

No soldiers are cowards.

Some soldiers are not cowards.

The universal proposition (A or E) is called the

superaltern, and the particular is called the subaltern (I or
O).
The downward arrow transmits only truth, and the
upward arrow only falsity.

If an A proposition is given as true, the corresponding I

proposition is true also, and if an I proposition is given as
false, the corresponding A proposition is false.

But if an A proposition is given as false, this truth value

cannot be transmitted downward, so the corresponding I
proposition will have logically undetermined truth value.
Conversely, if an I proposition is given as true, this truth value
cannot be transmitted upward, so the corresponding A
proposition will have logically undetermined truth value. The
same rule applies to E and O propositions.
To remember the direction of the arrows for subalternation,
imagine that truth descends from above, and falsity rises up
form below.

Inferences
An inference is said to be mediate when more than
one premise is relied upon (syllogism) because the
conclusion is drawn from first the first premise
through the mediation of the second. But when a
conclusion is derived from only one premise the
inference is said to be immediate.

Examples of very useful immediate inferences from

the Traditional Square of Opposition
If an A proposition is our premise, then once can
validly infer that the corresponding O proposition is
false.
If an A proposition is our premise, the corresponding
I proposition is true.
If an I proposition is our premise, its corresponding
E proposition, which contradicts it must be false.

There are also immediate inferences that can be derived

given the truth or the falsehood of any one of the four
standard-form categorical propositions.
A is given as true:
E is false; I is true; O is false.
E is given as true:
A is false; I is false; O is true.
I is given as true:
E is false; A and O are undetermined.
O is given as true: A is false; E and I are undetermined.
A is given as false: O is true; E and I are undetermined.
E is given as false: I is true; A and O are undetermined.
I is given as false:
A is false; E is true; O is true.
O is given as false: A is true; E is false; I is true.

I is false

Using the contradictory, determined that E is

true

Both the subalternation and the contrary tell us

that A is false

The contradictory, subcontrary, and subalternation, all

give us O being true.

We will not always get clear answers. In this

example, knowing that E is false give us that I is
true, but the truth values for A and O.
If we know that E is false we can use the
contradictory that would make I true. But truth does
not go upward, and if E is false A could still be false.
And if I is true then O could also be true, since both
of them could be true.
O and A in this particular case have undetermined
truth values.