Think about the following

What is social research?

Why do we need social research?
Is there a right or a wrong way to conduct social
research?

What is research?
Systematic investigation of a subject aimed at
uncovering new information
Interpreting the relationship between subjects parts

Way of finding an answer to the basic questions

Who, what, when, where, why.
[Paul Vogt, 1993]
Provides reliable and verifiable knowledge of the
world (Sarantakos, 1998)which can be used to
improve the social conditions of humanity

What are some of the aims of research?

1.
Explore social reality
To explain social life- providing well documented
information
To evaluate the status of social issues and their effects on
society
To develop and test theories- make predictions
2
To understand behaviour and human action

to offer a basis for a critique of social reality

To suggest solutions to social problems
To liberate individuals

Type of research
Basic research creation of knowledge for
development or refining of theory.
Applied research: can demonstrate how
theories and research can help to improve
the lives of individuals (policy on treating
persons with HIV)
Evaluation
Development
Action

Research
Research is a collection of methods used in the
creation of scientific knowledge about the natural or
social world (Grosof & Sardy, 1999)
It is a process involving the use of the scientific
method to provide answers to questions (Robertson,
2000)
It is an approach by which we attempt to find out,
systematically, with the support of demonstrable
facts and standards, how the world and its
components work. ( Babbie, 2002)
It is a collection of methods which facilitates the
search for objective answers to questions and the
resolution problems (Khan, 1975)

WAYS OF KNOWING

Every day we are discovering

new knowledge about the
world.

How do we know the things we

know?
Personal observation
Tradition
Authority
Common sense

Problems with these approaches

Casual /haphazard
Inaccurate observation
Overgeneralization
Inadequate understanding
Selective observation
Illogical reasoning
Premature closure

Make up information
Halo effect
Ego involvement
Ecological fallacy

Personal Observation
Direct/personal experience
Appealing to our senses
Experiential reality (Babbie, 2003)

Pitfalls
Tend to be casual - not deliberate or systematic
Prone to errors
How things are seen, understood and reported
will normally be affected by personal biases

Tradition
the accepted way of thinking or doing things
Cumulative body of knowledge and
understanding that is passed on from generation
to generation
In every society there is agreement reality
(Babbie, 2001). Things are considered to be true
because people in the society accepts them to be
true. (Bush tea will a cure colds.)
Traditional knowledge very tenacious but
sometimes totally or partially inaccurate.
Influenced by factors such as prejudice

Authority
Learn from parents, teachers, experts/
professionals, media, textbooks etc.
Tradition can be viewed as a form of authority
Common and highly recommended source, but
accuracy not guaranteed. Example:
Authorities may speak on topics they know little
about.
The media often project cultural biases and stereotypes
When 2 authorities disagree on the same subject, who
do we believe?

Over-reliance on this source may make us too

dependent on the opinions and judgments of
others.

Common sense
Relying on ordinary and sometimes faulty
reasoning. What makes sense.
Using street smart reasoning as a basis for
providing answer to question, often no attention to
rules of logics.
The casual and non-systematic use of the
inductive and deductive approaches to knowing,
understanding and solving problems

Problems with these approaches

These ways of finding out things about the
world tend to be done in a casual and often
haphazard manner, rather than in a
deliberate and systematic way
There are no mechanisms to to ensure the
accuracy of the information produced
As a consequence, the knowledge generated
by these methods often contains errors

Common errors of these

approaches
Inaccurate observation - make mistakes

about what is observed and what is reported

Overgeneralization taking too few events as
evidence of the general pattern
Inadequate understanding Our interpretations
and conclusions are limited by our personal
experiences
Selective observation - narrow focus on
specific individuals or events
Illogical reason no relation between evidence
and conclusion e.g. the exception proves the
rule

Errors (cont.)

Premature closure you think you have all

the answers so you terminate inquire
Make up information Ex-post facto
hypothesizing trying to explain away
contradictions without further inquiry.
Halo effect we give greater value to the
ideas of people with the stronger reputation,
paying little regard to the ideas of the less
famous
Ego involvement we protect our ego at the
expense of the quality of our work
Ecological fallacy- erroneously drawing
conclusions about an individual based on
observations of a group

How to avoid these problems?

Through research designs- the science/ art of planning
procedures for conducting studies so as to get the most
valuable findings.
Take the strengths of all these methods
Incorporate them into a very structured and deliberate
technique
Include mechanisms and rules to prevent or minimize
errors and to protect the parties involved in the process

Key Concepts in definitions

Process a series of linked activities requires
order in execution
Systematic deliberate and methodical.
Following established procedures, orderly,
structured. Disciplined
Standards principles of expected or required
behaviour. Code of conduct. Ideals. Norms
Demonstrable facts verifiable data. Empirical
evidence. Logically verifiable.
Objective answers based on verifiable
evidence, free from the biases of the researcher

Key Concepts in definitions

(cont.)
The scientific method an approach to creating
knowledge that can be defined in terms of all the
concepts defined above.
This approach is process oriented, it is
systematic, it produces objective answers from
demonstrable facts, while adhering to certain
standards.
Social researchers use the scientific method to
ensure the accuracy of the knowledge they
produce and safety of the persons involved.

The scientific method

A cyclical process used by researchers to collect,
analyze and interpret data, in their search for new,
useful and accurate knowledge
The body of knowledge is referred to as science.
Persons who use this method are Scientists
The approach is commonly referred to as
Scientific Research
There is Scientific Research and Non-Scientific
methods of knowing such as tradition and
authority

The Research Process

Formulating Conclusions
Report Writing &
Presenting
Findings

Problem DefinitionIdentify issue to be

researched

Data Management
Processing & Analysing
data
Defining new problem
Literature Review
And so on..

Methodology
Planning the design
& sample
November 7, 2014

Data Collection

23

Some Principles of Scientific

Research
Empiricism - An approach to research relying
heavily on observation and measurement.
Objectivity - A dispassionate unbiased approach
to analyzing the world and presenting information
Systematic observation - A structured and
organized way of investigating

Some Principles of Scientific

Research (cont)
Replication
The process of repeatedly conducting studies
that test and confirm a hypothesis.
Direct replication the researcher duplicates the
design

Conceptual/indirect replication- providing

additional confirmation by measuring the behaviour
in a different way, using different participants or
using a different design

Attitude of the Scientist

Open-minded - any approach may be
correct, any answer may be true
Uncertain - no one has all the answers, no
one already knows
Skeptical - Any approach may be wrong,
any answer may contain errors
Cautious - Not all conclusions are facts
Ethical - Research should not harm others

Norms of the Scientific

Community
Universalism: Irrespective of who conducts the
research it should be judge on scientific merit.

Organised Scepticism: All evidence should

be scrutinised and challenged/ questioned. Must ensure
that the methods used are reliable and valid.

Disinterestedness: scientist should be neutral,

receptive and as impartial as is humanly possible. They
should accept and even search for evidence that runs
counter to their position.

Norms of the Scientific

Community (cont)
Communalism: Scientific knowledge is for
the common good of mankind, it should be
shared

Honesty:

Cheating in scientific research is a

major taboo. No fabrication of the data no
addition, no omission. Logical conclusions

WHY DO WE NEED TO DO
RESEARCH?