Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Research
Assesment
Activity in class
Prepare of a class paper
Course Objectives
1. About scientific research
1.
2.
3.
Types of research
Basic Definitions
Research plan
2. Research procedures
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Topic selecting
Literature review
Using of Databases
Making Hypothesis(es)
Conceptualization
Operalization
Sampling methods
Course Objectives
4. Research Methodology
1. Qualitative methods
2. Quantitative methods
5. How to do an interview
6. How to prepare a survey
7. How to prepare the presentation
Scientific research is
A systematic, controlled, empirical, and critical
investigation of hypothetical propositions about the
presumed relations among observed phenomena.
All research begins with a basic question or
proposition about a specific phenomenon
Why people doing something?
How they think about something?
What will change, if I change something important or
seemly less important?
What are the people thinking about thing?
Etc.
Scientific Research
Main Goal
Determination of a new, generally usable data, cnnection
os casuation
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It can be generalised
Reproducable
Proveable
Coherent (without contradiction)
Analitical
Simple (compact, elegant)
Important (Useful)
Deepness, connectivity (to other subjects)
Kajos Attila tanrsegd - Testnevels- s Sporttudomnyi Intzet
Deduction
Induction
Hypothesis
2. Operationalization
The process of developing operational definitions, or
specifying the exact operations involved in measuring a
variable.
Identifying the data collection methods(quantitative or
qualitative, and which)
3. Observation
Looking at aspects and making measurements on what
what is seen
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Definitions
Step by Step(Popper)
1.
2.
Theoretical Hypothesis(es):
3.
Operationalization:
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5. Analysis
Types of research
Basic research
Its goal is to collect knowledge, to make theretical research
It is coping with the knowing and lawfulness of a
phenomena
Mainly theoratical, but gives framework or basics of
empirical researches
Applied research
Researching the practical implementation of the findings
of the basic researches
Development research
Their main goal is to develop, improve the current
theories, knowledge, principles, methods, tools, etc.
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Inductive logic
We are starting from an observation, and try to find the
general principles, theories behind that exact phenomena.
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Deductive logic
1. Choose a question that you want to understand.
2. Make a list (inventory)
Descriptive research
Describe the population in order of a statistical variable
Causal research
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Exploratory research
Its objective of giving a better understanding of the
research problem
This includes helping to identify the variables which
should be measured within the study.
When we have little understanding of the topic we
find it impossible to formulate hypotheses without
some exploratory research.
The techniques of exploratory research include
reviews of secondary sources of data,
Informal interviews and
focus group interviews.
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Descriptive research
Descriptive research is concerned with describing the
characteristics of the chosen group, sample or
population.
We are only watching from outside, we do not
interrupt.
Sometimes is helps the preparation of a latter causal
research.
Important part for the data collection methods
Main methods used
Survey
Observation
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Causal research
Causal research attempts to deal with the why
questions.
This type of research is employed when there the
objective is to understand to know why a change in one
variable brings about a change in another variable.
Types of causal relationships
No relationship
Deterministic relationship
The change of a variable determines the change of another variable.
The connection is exlusive, which means no other variable is
determining the movement of the affected (dependent) variable.
Stochastic relationship
Probability connection. The relationship is trend like, but not
obligatory. We can decide weather it is there, but it is not
unequivocally determinable. More independent variables cause the
changes in the moving of the dependent variable.
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Longitudinal research
Research study that involves repeated observations of the same variables
over long periods of time often many decades.
Longitudinal studies make observing changes more accurate, and they are
applied in various other fields.
Types
Non overlaping study
Same questions, but the sample always changes
Overlaping study
Same questions, and the some people is the same in the sample, but not
everybody.
Panel study
Sample a cross-section, and survey it at (usually regular) intervals.
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Methods
Secondary reserach
Data what was not collected in order to answer our
question, but somehow related to it.
Pros: Time efficient, easy, cheap, can help to evaluate the
problem, etc.
Cons: In can be out of date, not gives exact answer to our
questions, not collected by our standards, etc.
Primary research
Data collected by the researcher in order to answer his/her
specific question, to fulfil the goal of the study
Pros: More proper, gibes answers to our problem
Cons: Harder, slower, can be expensive, conplex, needs
proper preparation and analysis.
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Experiment
Sociometric
Quantitative research
Questioning
Krdv (survey)
Experiment
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The Thesis
Usual build-up
Title page
Table of content
List of Figures / Tables (if needed)
Introduction
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Literature review
Methods
Empirical research
Results
Discussion
Coclusions
Recommendations
Acknowledgement
References
Appendices
Kajos Attila tanrsegd - Testnevels- s Sporttudomnyi Intzet
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Read
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Academic journals
Periodicals
Newsweeklies
Everyday encounters
Literature search
The review
Questions
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Literature revies
Criterions
The source must be the exact standard
Adequate for the purpose (other sources are appropriate for a
BSc(BA) or MSc(MA) thesis, an academic journals article or a PhD
thesis
Academic standard
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Literature research
Every organized data collection activities in order of
the given goal.
Places of research
Historical archives
Library research (books, journals not online form)
Online database research (online database of books and
journals)
Statistic databases (e.g. Eurostat)
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Online sources
Pros
Always reachable
Many free content (e.g. through university network)
Cons
Not always verified
Everybody can upload information
The selection of the available literature is sometimes very
hard.
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Science Direct
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Springer Link
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Google Scholar
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PuBMed
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entr
ez?db=pubmed
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Other EU databases
http://europa.eu/documentation/statisticspolls/index_hu.htm
Eurobarometer
http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/index_en.htm
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References
Provides information about the author
It gives a hint
About the quality and understanding of the researched
topic
Professional authenticity
The freshness of the processed literature
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Plagiarism
"wrongful appropriation," "close imitation," or
"purloining and publication"
of another author's "language, thoughts, ideas, or
expressions," and the representation of them as
one's own original work
Every form of plagiarism is forbiden.
That is why we must avoid it by using proper
bibliographic data and exact references to the
original information source.
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Types of references
Inset reference
Word by word referencing
In these cases we put the sentence(s) between quotation marks
and after it we name the author(s) and the year of the document
(Eusebio, 1966)
It must not be more than few sentences.
We mainly use it for definitions, important statements.
Content reference
We take the essence of a document, text or larger section.
We write the author into the sentence. E.g. In Luis Figo (2001)
opinion
We write down the author and the year of publication e.g. (Vitor
Baia, 1996)
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Co-author works
(Tiago Viana, 2000)
Edited book
(Velsos ed., 2002), (Abel Xavier-Nani, 2010)
Publication by an organization
(WTO, 1999)
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References
Individual works
Author (Year): Title of the Book. Publisher, Place published.
Edited book
Editor(s) (ed(s).) (Year): Title of the Book. Publisher, Place
published.
Part of work
Author(s) (Year): Title of the article. In: Editor(s) (ed(s).) (Year):
Title of the Book. Publisher, Place published. pages
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References
Journal article
Author(s) (Year): Title of the article. Name of the Journal,
edition, number, pages (pp. From-to)
Online Source
Author(s) (Year): Title of the article. Name of the
homepage, URL address, time of download
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Course Objectives
Hypothesis
Conceptualization
Operationalization
Sampling
Hypothesis
Based on
Experience
Literature research
Observing the research problem
The hypothesis
A good hypothesis is based on sound reasoning.
Your hypothesis should be based on previous research.
The hypothesis should follow the most likely outcome, not the exceptional
outcome.
Conceptualization
Conceptualization
In conducting a study according to the scientific
method, researchers need to have a clear
understanding of what they are investigating, how
the phenomenon can be measured or observed, and
what procedures are required to test the
observations or measurements.
Conceptualization of the research problem in
question and a logical development of procedural
steps are necessary to have any hope of answering a
research question or hypothesis.
Conceptualization
How to do it?
First define and then operationalize (which is one way of
defining concepts).
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Conceptualization
Second step
Creating dimensions
The dimensions means the main factors of our concept.
It is important, that these divisions should have no
overlaps.
Place of work
Economic cicumstances
Education
Place of living
Conceptualization
Third step
Creating indicators (variables)
Dimensions can be interpret through indicators
The higher the nuber, the better
Level of income
Standard of living
Owned property
Etc.
Other example
Social Status
Power
Privilege
Prestige
Indicators
Income
I G
R E A B R
Operationalization
Operationalization
The process of specifying the operations that will
indicate the value of cases on a variable
Male
E-Mail
Interview
Face-to-face
Phone
Exapmle
Operationalize the effects of Sending Flowers and
Get well cards to a Patient, as a method of
Increasing Health.
How will we measure Increasing
Healthof Patients ?
Shorter hospital stays Operationalized
as Days spent in the hospital
Normal heart rates and blood pressures
Operationalized in Beats per minute and Diastolic
and systolic pressures.
Increased morale Operationalized by asking
patients a series of questions about their attitude,
current outlook, emotions
Another example
Economic circumstance (dimension)
Income (indicator)
Q: How much is your monthly wage?
A: .. EUR
Sampling
Definitions
Population
a group or class of subjects, variables, concepts, or
phenomena(pl. Population of Portugal, The students of
University of Coimbra, the players of a sport club, etc.)
Sample
is a subset of the population that is taken fromthe entire
population
Parameter
A decisive characteristic of the population(pl. Partition of
sex, age, educational, etc. In the population)
Estimate
The opinion developed in virtue of the sample.
Questions of sampling
The size of the population
In small populations the questioning of the entire
population is available
Concept
Representative sample
A subset of a statistical population that accurately reflects
the members of the entire population. A representative
sample should be an unbiased indication of what the
population is like.
Research errors
Sampling error
Too small sample
We do not inspecting the original population, but only a
fraction of it (Martian)
Probability sampling
Simple Random Sample
Each subject or unit in the population has an equal chance
of being selected. If a subject or unit is drawn from the
population and removed from subsequent selections, the
procedure is known as random sampling without
replacement the most widely used random sampling
method.
Advantages
Disadvantages
1. A list of the population must be compiled.
2. A representative sample may not result in all cases.
3. The procedure can be more expensive than other methods.
Probability sampling
Systematic Sample
We are providing the equal chances by selecting every e.g. 10th element
of the population.
But if we are sorting the sample in some criteria, then representativity is
not fulfiled.
Advantages
1. Selection is easy.
2. Selection can be more accurate than in a simple random sample.
3. The procedure is generally inexpensive
Disadvantages
1. A complete list of the population must be obtained.
2. Periodicity may bias the process
Stratified sample
A stratified sample is the approach used when adequate representation
from a sub sample is desired.
The characteristics of the sub sample (strata or segment) may include
almost any variable: age, sex, religion, income level, or even individuals
who listen to specific radio stations or read certain magazines.
The strata may be defined by an almost unlimited number of
characteristics; however, each additional variable or characteristic makes
the sub sample more difficult to find.
Probability sample
Cluster Sample
Select the sample in groups or categories.
With cluster sampling, one can divide the state into
districts, counties, or zip code areas and select groups of
people from these areas.
Nonprobability sample
Not representative sample method
Available sample (also known as convenience sample)
Is a collection of readily accessible subjects for study, such as a group
of students enrolled in an introductory mass mediacourse, or shoppers
in a mall.
Although available samples can be helpful in collecting exploratory
information and may produce useful data in some instances, the
samples are problematic because they contain unknown quantities of
error.
Researchers need to consider the positive and negative qualities of
available samples before using them in a research study.
Quota Sampling
a non-probability sampling technique wherein the researcher ensures
equal or proportionate representation of subjects depending on which
trait is considered as basis of the quota.
For example, if basis of the quota is college year level and the
researcher needs equal representation, with a sample size of 100, he
must select 25 1st year students, another 25 2nd year students, 25 3rd
year and 25 4th year students. The bases of the quota are usually age,
gender, education, race, religion and socioeconomic status.
Nonprobability sample
Judgmental (purposive) sampling
In this type of sampling, subjects are chosen to be part of the sample
with a specific purpose in mind.
With judgmental sampling, the researcher believes that some subjects
are more fit for the research compared to other individuals. This is the
reason why they are purposively chosen as subjects
Consecutive sampling
Very similar to convenience sampling except that it seeks to include
ALL accessible subjects as part of the sample.
This non-probability sampling technique can be considered as the best
of all non-probability samples because it includes all subjects that are
available that makes the sample a better representation of the entire
population.
Snowball sampling
Snowball Sampling is a method used to obtain research and
knowledge, from extended associations, through previous
acquaintances,
Snowball sampling uses recommendations to find people with the
specific range of skills that has been determined as being useful.
Sample size
Always depends on the data collection method used
Qualitative
In case of depth interview
Few. Important that every group should be involved.
Professional interview
We should ask as many professionals as we can, in order to have
the most adequate results.
Sample size
Quantitative
A sample under 30-40 is not statistically significant.
More than 100 (a sample of 400 is satisfactory).
Sample size
The size of the sample required for a study depends
on at least one or more of the following seven
points: