PHYSICAL AND

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF

TRANSITION METAL IONS

Common Properties
1. Possess the properties of metals
2. Low ionisation energies
3. Variable positive oxidation states
4. High melting and boiling points
5. High electrical conductivities
6. d orbitals are more filled from left to right in periodic table
7. Form coloured solution and compounds
8. Tend to form complexes
9. Form alloys with one another and with other metallic elements
10. Many dissolve in mineral acids while few are unaffected by simple
acids

Variable oxidation states

Variable oxidation state can be formed as there are both

ns and (n-1)d electrons in bonding.

The participation of ns electrons in bonding leads to +2
oxidation state which is a lower oxidation state.
The participation of (n-1)d electrons in bonding leads to
higher oxidation states like +3, +4, +5, +6 etc.

These oxidation states depend upon the nature of

combination of transition metals with other elements.

Variable oxidation states

The oxidation state increases with atomic number.
This increase is related to groups.
The most common oxidation state of the elements of 1st
transition series is +2.
Ionic bonds are formed in lower oxidation state
transition elements.
Covalent bonds are formed in higher oxidation states.

VARIABLE OXIDATION STATES OF THE 1ST

TRANSITION ELEMENTS
The ability to exist in more than one oxidation
states.

e.g. Fe3+ and Fe2+, Cu2+ and Cu+, Co2+ and Co3+ and Co4+ and Co5+

The variable oxidation states exist because of the

little difference in energy between the (n-1)d and ns.
i.e. the two orbital 3d and 4s, 4d and 5s, 5d and 6s

Consequently the ionization energy for the removal

of electron from thus orbital is quite similar.
In the formation of a compound, electrons are
removed from both orbital.

Group 3
Sc and Y have very similar and relatively simple M3+ ions chemistry.
Group 10
Ni, Pd and Pt are good hydrogenation catalysts. They all tend to form more
square planar complexes than other transition elements.
Group 11
Cu, Ag and Au are relatively unreactive metals in terms of corrosion. They
form linear complexes like the cationic, [Ag(NH3)2]2+ or the anionic [CuCl2]and [Au(CN)2]-. All three are extremely good conductors of heat and
electricity.
Group 12
Zn and Cd are mainly M2+ ions.
From Group 3 to 7
The known maximum oxidation state belongs to the 'new' group i.e.
Sc/Y/La (+3) to Mn/Tc/Re (+7).

Formation of Coloured Compounds

Most of the transition elements form coloured
compounds both in solid state as well as in
aqueous solution.
The electrons are to be promoted from a lower
energy level to a higher energy level.
Some amount of energy is required for this
process and the radiation of light is observed in the
visible region.
The compound absorbs a particular colour from
the radiation and the remaining ones are emitted.

Jablonski Diagram

Why is copper(II) sulphate solution blue?

If white light (ordinary sunlight, for example) passes through
copper(II) sulphate solution, some wavelengths in the light are
absorbed by the solution.
Copper(II) ions in solution absorb light in the red region of the
spectrum.

The light which passes through the solution and out the other side
will have all the colours in it except for the red. We see this
mixture of wavelengths as pale blue (cyan).

Note:
Exhibit a wide range of oxidation state or positively charged
forms.

The positive oxidation states allow transition elements to form

many different ionic and partially ionic compounds.
The formation of complexes causes the d orbitals to split into
two energy sublevels, which enables many of the complexes to
absorb specific frequencies of light.
The complexes form characteristic coloured solutions and
compounds.
Complexation reactions sometimes enhance the relatively low
solubility of some compounds.

(a) General Physical Characteristics

Generally speaking they are hard, tough and strong (compared with the Group
1, Alkali metals) because of the strong metallic atom-atom bonding.

Good conductors of heat and electricity (there have many free electrons per
atom to carry thermal or electrical energy ).
They are easily hammered and bent into shape. They are typically
lustrous/shiny solids (or liquids).

(b) High Melting Point and Boiling Point

The bonding between the atoms in transition metals is very strong. The strong
attractive force between the atoms is only weakened at high temperatures,
hence the high melting points and boiling points (again compare with Group 1,
Alkali Metals).
Hg is in another transition metal, but unusually, it has a very low melting point
of -39C. For example: Fe melts at 1535C and boils at 2750C, but a Group 1
Alkali Metal such as Na melts at 98C and boils at 883C.

(c) High density

Another consequence of the strong bonding between the atoms in transition

metals is that they are tightly held together to give a high density.
For example: Fe has a density of 7.9 g/cm3 and Na has a density of 0.97 g/cm3
(and floats on water while fizzing, water has a density of 1.0 g/cm3).

(d) Form colored compounds and ions in solution

They tend to be much less reactive than the Alkali Metals (Group 1).
They do not react as quickly with water or oxygen, so do not corrode as
quickly.
Transition metals tend to form more coloured compounds more than other
elements either in solid form or dissolved in a solvent like water.

The colours of some transition metal salts in aqueous solution are

shown below. These coloured ions/compounds often have quite a
complex structure and indeed are called complexes.

10

3d block elements:
1. Sc - scandium salts, such as the chloride, ScCl3, are

colorless and are not typical of transition metals.

2. Ti - titanium(III) chloride, TiCl3, is purple.
3. V - vanadium(III) chloride, VCl3, is green.
4. Cr - chromium(III) sulphate, Cr2(SO4)3, is dark green
(chromate(VI) salts are yellow, dichromate(VI) salts are
orange).
5. Mn - manganese compound - potassium manganate(VII),
KMnO4, is purple (manganese(II) salts eg MnCl2 are pale
pink).
6. Fe - iron(III) chloride, FeCl3, is yellow-orange-brown.
iron(II) compounds are usually light green and
iron(III) compounds orange/brown.
7. Co - cobalt sulphate, CoSO4, is pinkish.
8. Ni - nickel chloride, NiCl2, is green.
9. Cu - copper(II) sulphate, CuSO4, is blue.
10. Zn - zinc salts such as zinc sulphate, ZnSO4, are usually
colourless and are not typical of transition metals.

(d) Some other odd bits of chemistry

Preparation of Transition Metal Salts:
Many of the transition metal carbonates are unstable on heating and
readily undergo thermal decomposition.
MCO3(s) MO(s) + CO2(g)
M = Fe, Cu, Mn or Zn
The carbon dioxide can be confirmed by giving a white milky
precipitate with limewater.
Sometimes the two solids show a colour change.
e.g. for Cu: turquoise green carbonate black copper(II) oxide
for Zn: white carbonate white zinc oxide, but yellow hot

Many transition metal ions (e.g. in soluble salt solutions) give

hydroxide precipitates when mixed with aqueous NaOH solution.
Transition metal salt solution + sodium hydroxide solid hydroxide
M2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) M(OH)2(s)
M = (Fe2+), pale green in aqueous solution,
which gives a dark grey-green gelatinous precipitate of
iron(II) hydroxide with NaOH solution.
(Cu2+), blue in aqueous solution,
which gives a blue copper(II) hydroxide precipitate
with NaOH solution.
(Fe3+), yellow in aqueous solution,
giving a brown iron(III) hydroxide precipitate with
NaOH solution.

(e) Catalytic Properties

(1) The metallic elements themselves are used as catalysts
Many transition metals are used directly as catalysts in industrial chemical
processes and in the anti-pollution catalytic converters in car exhausts.
e.g. Fe is used in the HABER PROCESS for the synthesis of ammonia:
Nitrogen + Hydrogen Ammonia (via a catalyst of Fe atoms)
or N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)
Pt and Rh (in other transition series below Sc to Zn) are used in the catalytic
converters in car exhausts to reduce the emission of carbon monoxide and
nitrogen monoxide, which are converted to the non-polluting gases nitrogen
and carbon dioxide.
2NO(g) + 2CO(g) N2(g) + 2CO2(g)
Ni is the catalyst for 'hydrogenation' in the margarine industry.
It catalyses the addition of hydrogen to an alkene carbon = carbon double
bond (>C=C< + H2 >CH-CH<).
This process converts unsaturated vegetable oils into higher melting
saturated fats which are more 'spreadable' with a knife.

(2) Some compounds of transition metals are also used as catalysts

As well as the metals, the compounds of transition metals also acts as catalysts.
e.g.
Manganese dioxide (or manganese(IV) oxide), MnO2, a black powder,
readily decomposes an aqueous solution of hydrogen peroxide:
Hydrogen peroxide water + oxygen
MnO2

2H2O2(aq) 2H2O(l) + O2(g)

A useful reaction in the laboratory for preparing oxygen gas.
Vanadium(V) oxide (vanadium pentoxide, V2O5) is used as the catalyst
in converting sulphur dioxide into sulphur trioxide as a stage in the
manufacture of sulphuric acid in the CONTACT PROCESS.
V2O5

2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g)

A very important industrial process because sulphuric acid is a

widely used chemical in industry.

Magnetic properties
Due to these unpaired electrons they behave as
paramagnetic substances. These substances are
attracted by the magnetic field.
The transition elements that contain paired
electrons behave as diamagnetic substances.
These substances are repelled by the magnetic
field.
The paramagnetic character increases as the
number of unpaired electrons increases.