Chapter 2

Ancient Mesopotamian, Egypt and Near

Eastern Empires

Mesopotamian Civilization

Sumerian City-States (c. 3500-2300 BCE)

Greeks spoke of Mesopotamia which means land between the rivers
Tigris and Euphrates (modern Iraq and eastern Syria).
Civilization emerged due to the fertile land and rivers. That is why
Mesopotamian civilization is also called the Fertile Crescent
Mesopotamia was the place of one of the earliest centers of urban civilization
as early as 4000 BCE
Sumerians first developed civilization
The origin obscure (perhaps from northern India)
Settled in 3500 BCE
Emergence of the first earliest 12 independent walled city-states (c. 2900-2300
BCE)
Sumerian city-states were not united
Invented symbol writing (cuneiform) in about 3200 BCE
Constructed cities, Eridu, Erech, Adab, Isin, Kish, Larsa, Nippur, Lagash, Ur,
Uruk. Sumerians used bricks for the construction of the buildings.
Constant wars between the city-states and foreign invasions resulted in their
collapse
Struggle and conflicts over the natural resources such as land and water and the
control of trade
Geographically Mesopotamia was open to foreign invasions unlike Egypt

The city of Ur (in modern-day Iraq) was one of the oldest and most important cities of Mesopotamia
in the days of the ancient Sumerians and Babylonians. The Great Stela of Ur is perhaps the most
significant monument ever found in Babylonia. The stela contains a pictorial record of the building of
the Ziggurat in about 2300 BC.

The Akkadian Empire (c. 2300-2100 BCE)

Akkadians conquered Sumerian city-states in about 2300 BCE
The Akkadians, a Semitic-speaking people
Got the name after the city Akkad, which was situated in the north
King Sargon I founded dynasty of Akkad and won 24 battles
Sargon build the worlds first empire and became the first king in the world
history
The Akkadian empire extended from the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean.
According to a legend, king Sargon washed his sword in the Persian Gulf.
Semitic languages
The Akkadian language replaced Sumeria
The Akkadians borrowed much from Sumerians
They spread Sumerian achievements beyond Mesopotamia
The Gutians ended Akkadian rule in about 2100 BCE

Third Dynasty of Ur (c. 2100-2000 BCE)

After disintegration of Akkadian empire warring city-states emerged
Several Sumerian cities revived, especially Ur
Often this period is also called Sumerian Renaissance
Influx of Elamites destroyed the city of Ur in about 2000 BC.
Period of civil war and finally invasion by the Amorites
100 thousand clay tablets were discovered from this period

The First Dynasty of Babylon (c. 1800-1600 BCE)

Amorites, a semitic-speaking, headed by Hammurabi (reign. 1792-1750 B.C.)
King of Justice
King of Akkad and Sumer
Lawgiver

Hammurabi conquered almost whole of Mesopotamia and Assyria. He extended

civilization to the north
Conquests due to well-disciplined army and his philosophy of divide and rule.
He unified the whole Mesopotamia as during the Sumerian period
After him kings weak, which resulted in invasions by the Hittites in around
1600 BCE.
Having sacked Babylon the Hittites returned to their country.
New invaders the Kassites from Iranian Mountains and ruled for the next three
centuries.
However this was considered as the dark age and very little is known about this
period.

Religion: The Basis of Mesopotamian Civilization

A spiritual worldview. Religion frame of reference to understand both society
and nature.
Religion the center of Mesopotamian religious, economic, political and social
way of life
Gods were seen as part of nature [polytheism and animism]; gods of sky, earth,
sea, underworld
3000 deities
Gods controlled the universe and the worldly realm of life
Gods living realities who affected all aspects of life. To live is to execute the will
of gods
Deities An [sky], Enlil [wind], Enki [earth], Marduk [god of the city].
Ziggurat; flourishing of temple building by volunteers.
Ziggurat was dedicated to specific god or goddesses who was the patron of the
city
Role of the temple and priest: religious, economic and cultural center
Epic of Gilgamesh dates back to 3000 BCE.
Deals with great flood, idea of mortality and secular way of life.
Similar to the biblical stories about the flood

Gilgamesh, hero of the Mesopotamian Epic of Gilgamesh, sought the secrets of immortality from
Utnapishtim, who, like the biblical Noah, built a ship and escaped humankind's destruction by flood.
Throughout his life Gilgamesh faced many tests, often against animals, as depicted in this 8thcentury Assyrian relief (Louvre, Paris). The Epic of Gilgamesh, composed about 2000 BC and found
inscribed on 12 tablets at Nineveh, is the earliest known epic. (Giraudon/Art Resource)

Ziggurat at Ur circa 2100 B.C.

The construction of ziggurats in Mesopotamia
probably originated from an earlier tradition of
raising temples on terraces so that they would be
higher than any of the surrounding buildings

Government and Law

Primitive democracy rule of the council of elders who appointed the
temporary king only during the war.
However kings later became hereditary and permanent
Kingship bestowed by the gods; the central institution. Theocratic political
system
King did not consider himself as god but as great men selected by gods to
represent them on earth. It means that gods ruled through kings.
The king as everyone had to implement and obey divine laws.
Social stratification of the society: kings, priests, specialists, free farmers and
slaves
The Code of Hammurabi, a collection of 282 laws. Western concept of law
and justice Similar to the biblical commandments
Fragments of this code survived
Basic philosophy of law was an eye for an eye, tooth for a tooth.
The code rested on the authority of gods and it prescribed different kinds of
laws. To violate them meant to violate the divine order.
Penalties varied on the social status. (nobles, commoners and slaves) so
people were not equal before the law.
Slaves didnt have any rights
The code provided
consumer protection laws
commercial laws
legal laws for the society
laws dealing with morality if a son has struck his father, his hand shall
be cut off.

The law code of Hammurabi, king of Babylonia from 1792 to 1750 BC, is recorded on this stele,
which also bears a relief portrait of the king standing before Shamash, the god of justice. The stele
was found in Susa, Iran, in 1901. (Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY)

Writing, Mathematics and Astronomy

First schools of scribes in history in around 2500 BCE
Writing for record keeping and teaching purposes
Developed first textbooks and dictionaries
Clay tables in form of text-books
Students employed after completion of the school as archivists, secretaries and
accountants
Cuneiform (wedged shaped), about 3000 BCE
Mathematics

devised multiplication and division tables

devised cubes and cube roots
developed digit and place value of numbers
determined the area of right-angle triangles and rectangles
divided circle into 360 degrees
geometry used to measure fields and erect buildings

Astronomy
observations of the stars and planets
devised the first lunar calendar based on the cycles of the moon 12 months
mythical interpretation of universe

Others
arch, dome, brick, wheel, chariots, money

Pictograms evolved into the cuneiform system of writing, in which a sign refers to the name of an
object. This Sumerian tablet has been identified as a numerical list. (The Bettmann Archive)

Cuneiform
Clay
Tablet
3200 B.C.

Egyptian Civilization

Introduction
The Fertile Valley of the Nile

Nile originates in Burundi and flows through Uganda, Sudan, Egypt and
empties in the Mediterranean sea. It is around 6650 km long.

Herodotus called Egypt the gift of Nile

Control of river included engineering and administrative skills

Fertility, crops, transportation and communication

Geographical position provided Egypt with protection

Egyptian history

Manetho, an Egyptian priest provided basic frame for the study of

Egyptian history

More than 3000 thousand years of history

31 royal dynasties

6 major historical periods

Menes or Narmer often called unifier of the Upper and Lower Egypt
unified Egypt in 3100 BCE and established the first dynasty

Last Ptolemaic dynasty ended in 31 BCE

The Early Dynastic Period (c. 3100-2700 BCE) (Dynasties I-II)

The earliest phase saw the formation of the Egyptian state
Egypt was divided into Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt
Before unification settlements along Nile took place. So settlement and Nile
facilitated foundation of the state
Unification was important. It was geographical and political unification.
Even the royal double crown represented unification.
Important developments that led to the foundation of the state

Kingship

cultural regionalism disappeared

social structure and hegemony of Egyptian culture/ self-identification

administration at Memphis, which was strategically located for control of

both Upper and Lower Egypt

establishment of trade and organized economy

introduction of hieroglyphic writing

The Old Kingdom (2700-2200 BCE) (Dynasties III-VI)

The Old Kingdom lasted for about 500 hundred years. This period
symbolizes peace, stability, no standing army and only internal interest
By the III dynasty Egyptian kings achieved full supremacy and ruled from
their capital at Memphis
The royal power was absolute. Rule through royal family and nobility
The word pharaoh literally means great house
The best symbol of the Old Kingdom were great pyramids
During the 4th dynasty main pyramids were built
The first pyramid was Zoser pyramid built by architect Imhoteph in around
2600 BCE
Giza Complex and the largest Khufu pyramid:

481 feet high

756 feet long on each side

Built of 2.3 million stone block

Each block 2.5 tones

100 thousand people spent 20 years building it

Pyramids symbolize
political and military authority
economic strength
religious motives

The earliest pyramidal structure of the ancient world, the Step Pyramid (c.2630 BC) of King Zoser at
Saqqara, Egypt, consists of six terraces of receding sizes with a mastaba (tomb) at its nucleus.
(Corbis/MIT Collection)

A camel caravan passes the pyramids of Khufu (Cheops), Khafre, and Menkaure
at Giza, Egypt, on the eastern edge of the Sahara. (Corbis/Jonathan Blair)

The Great Sphinx is among the world's best known and most admired ancient treasures. Its
extraordinary monumentality attests to advanced engineering and construction methods which
continue to baffle contemporary scientists. The body (of a recumbent lion) and the head (of a divine
king) of the Great Sphinx are carved from living rock. The outstretched paws are added masonry.
The whole figure was originally covered with painted plaster, traces of which are still visible. (Deni
& Will McIntyre/AllStock/PNI)

The First Intermediate Period (c. 2200-2000 BCE) (VII-XI)

Causes:

declining of royal power

growing provincial power of priests and nobles

rise of independent rulers

economic decline due to the construction of pyramids

civil war

dynasty ruled only part of Egypt

The Middle Kingdom (c. 2000-1800 BCE) (XI-XII)

After the period of confusion the governors of Thebes established the Middle
Kingdom in 2052 BCE.
12th dynasty restored kings power and partial control of nobles
Reestablishment of trade with Palestine, Ethiopia and Nubia.
New capital Thebes
New deity Amon-Re.
The resurgent power of nobility, the erosion of central authority, mark the end
of the Middle Kingdom and beginning of the Second Intermediate Period

The Second Intermediate Period (1800-1600 BCE): Hyksos Invasion

(XIII-XVII)
A plot by Hyksos and Nubians to control entire Egypt. Nubians occupied
southern while Hyksos occupied northern part of Egypt. Supporters of
Egyptian royal family were in between.
Dominated by Hyksos king shepherds invaders since around 1800 BCE
Desert and geographical position could not save Egypt this time
They were Semitic-speaking people and their origin was not certain
Established rule, controlled trade links and had Egyptian governors.
Introduced use of bronze and new warfare tactics. They were the first to use
horse chariot in the battle.
The pharaohs Camose and Amose drove the Hyksos out of Egypt in 1575
BCE
Egyptians conquered the capital city of Hyksos Avaris

The New Kingdom Empire (c. 1600-1200 BCE) and After

King Thutmose III built powerful army and began extending Egyptian
frontiers
Conquests of Nubia, Palestine and Syria resulted in conflict with Hittites
Empire
Struggle between the two weakened both
Amarna Period (1346-1364 BCE):

religious struggle and priests challenged pharaoh

Amenhotep IV resisted the priesthood of Amon and devoted himself to

Aton sun-disc

His wife Nefertiti supported him in the foundation of new religion

Changed his name to Akhenaten satisfies Aton and moved capital from
Thebes to place called Tell-el-Amarna, which means Horizon of the
Sun

God Aton universal and creator of the universe; [monotheism]

Opposition to the worship of Aton and persecutions of Amon-Re

followers

Economic decline, foreign invasions, and revolution.

Tutankhamen restored the old religion and returned capital to Thebes

Ramses the Great, who ruled 67 years, was among the last powerful
Egyptian kings. He was also known as tomb builder and fought Hittites in the
battle of Kadesh
After 1200 BCE Egypt fall under control of Libyans, Nubians, Assyrians,
Persians, Greeks and Romans

Ramses II, the third king of the Egyptian 19th dynasty, is depicted in this stone sculpture. His 67-year
reign was a time of great prosperity and marked the height of Egyptian military power, culminating in
a peace treaty (1283 BC) with the neighboring Hittites. (Scala/Art Resource, NY)

The gold funerary mask of the Egyptian pharaoh Tutankhamen (r.1361-52 BC) was among the
items that were discovered in his tomb by Egyptologist Howard Carter in 1922. Tutankhamen
was only nine years old when he succeeded to the throne. (Corbis/Charles & Josette Lenars)

Religion: The Basis of Egyptian Civilization

Religion shaped political and social life of Egyptian society. It is illustrated in
great pyramids, mummification and religious literature
Religious beliefs the basis for art, medicine, astronomy, literature..
Deities worshiped by Egyptians numbered in thousands
Beliefs in animism, polytheism and monotheism
Spirits could take forms of humans and animals and were present everywhere
Over a time special deities emerged such as Horus, Amon, Re, Isis and Osiris.
Egyptians spend money and resources to please deities. That is why there
were many ceremonies and rituals.
Immortality of the spirit and the quest of pharaohs for immortality.
Valley of the kings in the West life goes from one shore to another
Mummification and pyramids stone medium of immortality
divine kingship+ the concept of maat [truth and justice]

The Temple of Luxor, or Southern Sanctuary, at Luxor, Egypt, was begun by the 18th-dynasty king
Amenhotep III (r. 1417-1379 BC) and dedicated to Amon-Re, king of the gods. It was built of
sandstone from the quarries of Gebel Silsila. (Corbis/Vanni Archive)

Osiris, god of the dead and the underworld, was one of the most important deities of ancient Egypt.
The Egyptians expected to be judged after death and to be presented before Osiris when found
innocent. (Corbis/Rober Wood)

In this image is a portion of the text of the Book of the Dead. In

the representation, the deceaseds heart is being weighed under
the observation of the deities Isis, Osiris, and Nephthys. Also
present are Maat, Thoth, Hor, and Anubis. The creature kneeling
before the shrine is a monster who will eat the heart if it fails to
pass inspection.

Contributions in Sciences
Religious activity stimulated literary activity
Hieroglyphic writing in 3200 BCE found on stone and papyrus. This writings
influenced Phoenician alphabet
Architecture represented in tombs and pyramids
Astronomy

movements of the stars

365 day calendar, influenced Julius Caesar calendar

Mathematics

system of numbers
360 degrees of a circle
Pi ratio

Medicine

surgical techniques and drugs

accurate diagnosis
human anatomy

Arts and architecture

pyramids, tombs and temples

From the end of the 4th millennium BC, hieroglyphics, which are pictorial symbols used in early
writing systems, were an integral part of Egyptian writing. These hieroglyphics were engraved on a
temple wall in the ancient village of Karnak, in southern Egypt. (Corbis-Bettmann)

As far as the science of Egyptology is concerned, the Rosetta Stone might well be the most important
rock ever found. Discovered in 1799 by French soldiers during Napoleon's occupation of Egypt, it
contains an inscription carved in both Egyptian and Greek. Since scholars could read the Greek
version, the Rosetta Stone served as a tool for deciphering the previously mysterious hieroglyphics.
(Corbis-Bettmann)

Egyptian Civilization: Political, Economic and Social Life

The key to Egyptian civilization was political system
Pharaoh supreme power. He literally owned Egypt and people
Administrative system

Pharaoh

Vezier or DPM was responsible directly to king. He managed all

departments

Nomarch was royal official or governor

Nomes were administrative units [22 in the Upper Egypt and 20 in the
Lower Egypt]
Classes

Pharaoh, priests, nobility, the middle class [merchants and artisans],

soldiers and slaves

The Ancient Near East:

Peoples and Empires

Introduction
In about 1500 BCE emergence of international empires beyond the river
valleys
Emergence of empires led to the extension of civilization
Indo-European migration one of the causes for the emergence of new
empires
Indo-Europeans originated from wide regions ranging from South-eastern
Europe to the region beyond Caspian Sea or Southwest Asia [Iran,
Afghanistan and former Russian Republics].
Started migrations in about 2000 BCE, which brought them to Italy,
Greece, Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, Persia and India.
Family of Indo-European language include Greek, Latin, German, Slavic,
Sanskrit

The Hebrews: "The Children of Israel [c. 1800 BCE]

Early History

The Hebrews are Semitic-speaking people

They had a tradition concerning their origins and history

Written down in Hebrew Bible known as Old Testament

Descendants of Abraham who migrated from Mesopotamia to the land

of Palestine in about 1800 BCE

Since then Hebrews were identified as "children of Israel"

This migration took place in around 1800 BCE

Due to food shortage they migrated to Egypt in around 1600 BCE

Enslavement, "Exodus" and Moses in about 1300 BCE

Period of wandering and in 1220 BCE Jewish tribes entered Palestine

Conflict with Philistines

United Kingdom (c. 1000 BCE)

Power vacuum in the Near East

Around 1000 BCE emergence of a monarchy under Saul, David and
Solomon
By the time of King Solomon (c. 971-973 BCE) controlled all Palestine
with Jerusalem as its capital
Under Solomon expansion and political, economic and military
organization of life
Solomons building projects
Solomon is best known for the construction of the Temple in the city of
Jerusalem
Hebrews began viewing the Temple as the symbolic center of their
religion and hence of the Hebrew kingdom.

The Divided Kingdom

After Solomons death emergence of tensions between northern and

southern Hebrew tribes
Kingdom of Israel [10 lost tribes]

Kingdom of Judah [2 tribes]

Samaria
Jerusalem

Assyrians emerged as power in the 9th century and in 722 BCE they
destroyed Kingdom of Israel while Kingdom of Judah had to pay tribute
to the Assyrians.
Then Neo-Babylonians conquered Kingdom of Judah in 586 BCE and
destroyed the Temple. Babylonians deported many Hebrews to Babylon
[Babylonian Captivity]
Persians destroyed the Neo-Babylonians in 536 BCE and allowed
Hebrews to return and rebuilt their temple.
The revived kingdom of Judah survived until the conquest of Alexander
the Great in the 4th century.

The Spiritual Dimensions of Israel

A commitment to Yahweh "he causes to be"

Hebrew Bible or Torah
Land and God-People relationship
Chosen People
Covenant with Yahweh
Obedience to the law of God
Prophets

The reading of the Torah is a fundamental part of Jewish liturgical services. The Torah, or first
five books of the Bible, presents a system of moral and religious conduct and is revered as the
essence of divine revelation received by Moses on Mount Sinai. Here, a boy reads the Torah as
part of his bar mitzvah ceremony. (Miro Vintoniv/Stock,

This is Herod's Temple as reconstructed in a model of ancient Jerusalem by archaeologist Michael

Avi-Yonah. The actual temple, built by Herod the Great in the 1st century BC, was destroyed by the
Romans in AD 70. (Archive Photos)

The Hittites Empire (ca. 1600-1200 BCE)

In around 1600 BCE Hittites established empire in Asia Minor
The first Indo-European group to rise to the level of civilization
Remained virtually unknown until very recently, because 100 thousand tablets
were discovered dealing with Hittites history
Indo-Europeans originated from wide regions ranging from South-eastern
Europe to the region beyond Caspian Sea or Southwest Asia [Iran,
Afghanistan and former Russian Republics].
They were in Asia Minor before 2000 BCE
Hittites were warlike people
Ruled Asia Minor, northern Syria, raided Babylon and challenged Egypt
for control of Syria and Palestine.
Mursilis I in 1595 BCE raided Babylon but returned back
They succeeded due to well-trained army
Developed iron industry
Borrowed several features of Mesopotamian civilization
The Hittite Empire declined in around 1200 BCE

The Assyrian Empire

Emerged after fall of the Hittites in around 1200 BCE
Established powerful states and extended civilization
Semitic-speaking people
Their homeland was northern Mesopotamia
Their capital Nineveh (modern Mosul, Iraq)
The Assyrian military machine: army; pioneer corps; guerrilla warfare;
siege; terror tactics; iron weapons; horse-drawn war chariots; belief that their
gods commanded them to conquer
By 700 BCE their empire included: Mesopotamia; parts of Iranian
plateau; sections of Asia Minor; Syria; Palestine and Egypt down to
Thebes
In 612 BCE Assyrians defeated by a coalition of Medes and NeoBabylonians. Capital city of Nineveh burned down
Their rule was successful due to the following:

King enjoyed absolute power [greatest king was Ashurbanipal]

Developed efficient communication system

Developed effective military leaders and fighters

Able to deploy troops; Their army was between 100,000 and 200,00
strong.

Army well-organized and disciplined.

Used Iron weapons; The Assyrian spearmen, archers, and cavalrymen

were equipped with weapons and armor of iron.

Assyrian Society and Culture

King representative of god Ashur

Nobles
They improved roads, established messenger service, irrigation to
facilitate effective administration of conquered lands
Had strict laws
Not afraid to mix with other people
Guardians of Sumerian and Babylonian culture

Neo-Babylonian Empire (c. 600 BCE)

Leader Nebuchadnezzar II
612 BCE destroyed Assyrians
Conquest of Jerusalem and destruction of the Temple in 586 BCE
Defeated by Persians in 536 BCE
Known for

Hanging Gardens [built for emperors wife]

Ishtar the Gate of Babylon

Tower of Babylon

Biblical accounts

The Persian Empire or The Achaemenid Empire (c. 550330 BCE)

Aryan people were on Iranian plateau as early as in about 1100 BCE
Persian empire developed from that of Medes, which became very strong in
the 6th century. It is also called The Achaemenid Empire
In 612 BCE Medes and Neo-Babylonians defeated Assyrians
In around 560 BCE the Persian Cyrus defeated Medes
Cyrus the Great (559-530 BCE) father of Persia

Lydia and Greek city-states taken in 547 BCE

Mesopotamia taken in 539 BCE.

Jews could return to Jerusalem; Cyrus showed mercy and tolerance

Cyrus was:
Skilful organizer of empire
Provided tolerance
Was favourable by priesthood
Permitted local people to be officials
Had a reputation for mercy
Created a "world empire"

Expanding the Empire

Cambyses (530-522 BCE)

Captures Egypt
Title of pharaoh, 525 BCE

Darius I (521-486 BCE)

Codified Egyptian law; built a canal to link the Red Sea and
Mediterranean; build Persopolis
Persian greatest extent
Added the number of territories
Revolt in Asia Minor [499 BCE Ionian Revolt]
In Battle of Marathon, in 490 BCE, Persians defeated
Alexander the Great in 330 BCE ended ancient Persian Empire

The Parthians (c. 240 BCE-220 CE)

The Sassanid Empire (224-651 CE)

Governing the Empire

Stable rule and tolerance; Considered generosity and tolerance to be

more effective than terrorism and brutality. Captured Babylon without a
battle

Administrative ability (provinces). 20 satrapies with governors

Royal road Sardis to Susa; a network of roads

Monarchy/Persian king

Uniform language/ Aramaic; empires basic language of commerce and

administration

Economy; taxing; agriculture, irrigation; Taxes could be paid with official

coins [The gold daric & the silver shekel]

Professional army and Postal service; a huge army of 300,000 men; Built

The architectural remains and relief sculptures of Persepolis, the Persian city of the great kings of the
Achaemenid Empire, are among the most impressive monuments of the ancient world. These are part
of the ruins of the Apadana, the great, palatial audience hall. When the Apadana was built, stone was
used for the foundations, door casements, columns, and stairways. Walls of colorfully glazed brick
filled in and around to connect these elements.

Darius I was the greatest of the Achaemenid kings. He ruled from 522 to 486 BC. He is seen here
(seated) in a relief sculpture, along with his successor, Xerxes. Darius is famous as a lawgiver, and
many stories were told about his severity yet impartiality in administering the law. It appears that he
strove to standardize legal practices all over his vast empire. (The Bettmann Archive)

Persian Religion

Zoroastrianism; it influenced Judaism, Christianity and Islam.

Zoroastrianism was also similar to Vedic Aryan Religion

Zarathustra/Zoroaster (628-551 BCE) was founder or prophet-reformer

Zoroaster preached a message of moral reform during an age of

materialism, political opportunism and ethical indifference

Holy Scripture of Zoroastrianism was Zend Avesta, which was written in

300 CE

Concept of belief

Addituional beliefs

Ahuramazda was god of goodness [wise god]

Ahriman was god of evil [spirit of evil]
Struggle between good and evil
Afterlife
Hell and heaven
Punishment
Free will

Importance of water and fire as means for the purification and sacrifice