CHAPTER 2

LOCOMOTION & SUPPORT

CONCEPT MAP OF CHAPTER 2

LOCOMOTION &
SUPPORT

LOCOMOTION &
SUPPORT IN
HUMANS & ANIMALS

TYPES OF
SKELETON

SUPPORT IN PLANTS

Muscles, ligaments
& tendon

LOCOMOTION

AQUATIC PLANTS

Birds

Fish

Exoskeleton

Endoskeleton

Earthworms

Axial skeleton

Appendicular
skeleton

Hydrostatic skeleton

Grasshopper

TERRESTRIAL
PLANTS

LEARNING OUTCOMES
To explain the necessity for support and locomotion
in humans and animals,
To describe problems that could be faced by humans
and animals in support and locomotion,
To explain how problems in support and locomotion
are overcome in humans and animals,
To name the bones that make up the axial skeleton
and appendicular skeleton of the human body

The Necessity for Support & Locomotion in

Humans & Animals

WHY DO HUMANS & ANIMALS NEED

SUPPORT?
1. To find the food
2. To find partner for mating
3. To protect/escape from their
predator
4. To shelter from bad environment

 Without support, animals & humans would not

be able to maintain their body shape their
body collapse under the weight of their own
tissues.

Support are provided by some form of

skeleton.
Hydrostatic skeleton
Exoskeleton
Endoskeleton

HYDROSTATIC SKELETON
A fluid-filled internal body cavity in
which the fluid is held under pressure
maintaining the body shape &
providing support for internal organ
The cavity is surrounded by muscles
arranged in layers.
The body shape of the animal changes
as these muscles contract & relax.

 The animals are soft & flexible, the

hydrostatic fluid does protect body parts by

acting as a shock absorber.

Examples : earthworm, jellyfish, leech &
caterpillar.

EXOSKELETON
A rigid outer covering usually made up of
protein, chitins &/@ calcium salt.
Insects the cuticle (covered with wax
to prevent water loss from the body),
cover the bodys surface.

The exoskeleton is jointed / hinged =

certain points of the skeleton are flexible
& can bend enabling the movement.

 Exoskeleton restrict the growth of

animals the exoskeleton must be shed
from time to time in order for the
animal to grow. (ecdysis)
Also found in the shells of molluscs &
the bony plates of tortoises.

Examples : insects, crabs, (arthropods)

lobsters, tortoise

ENDOSKELETON
Found in the bodies of all vertebrates
including fish, amphibians & birds.
Consist of hard skeleton of bones &
cartilage found inside the body made
up of calcium & phosphate.

Works with the muscular system to

perform movement & locomotion. It
support the body & protects the organs.

The snake skeleton

The Necessity for Support & Locomotion in

Humans & Animals
The functions of skeleton :
Provide shape & support
Enables movement (locomotion)
Protects internal organs
Stores calcium & phosphate ions
Produces blood cells
A firm base for the attachment
of muscles

THE HUMAN SKELETAL SYSTEM

The adult human skeleton consist of 206 bones.
Divided into two main parts : the axial skeleton
& the appendicular skeleton.
The axial skeleton : made up of the bones that
form the vertical axis of the body.
It supports & protects the organs of the head,
neck & trunk. (skull, vertebral column, ribs &
sternum)

 The appendicular skeleton : made up of

the bones that are attached to the
axial skeleton.
Include bones of the limbs, the
pectoral girdle & the pelvic girdle.

FUNCTION OF THE SKELETON

PROTECTION the skull protects the brain,
the vertebral column protects the spinal cord
& the rib cage protects internal organs such as
the heart.
SUPPORT act as a framework to support the
soft body parts, to maintain the upright
position & to keep the body stable.

FUNCTION OF THE SKELETON

MOVEMENT bones interact with the skeletal
muscle.
BLOOD CELL FORMATION most of the blood
cells are formed in the bone marrow of the
long bones.
MINERAL STORAGE bones act as a reservoir
for calcium & phosphorus.

SKELETAL SYSTEM
HUMAN SKELETON
AXIAL SKELETON
APPENDICULAR SKELETON
SKULL

VERTEBRAL COLUMN

RIB CAGE

CERVICAL

THORACIC
LUMBAR
SACRUM
COCCYX

PECTORAL GIRDLE
PELVIC GIRDLE

FORELIMB BONES

HINDLIMB BONES

THE AXIAL SKELETON

1.Skull
2.Ribs
3.Sternum
4.Vertebral
column

THE SKULL
Made up of 8 cranial bones & 14
facial bones including the upper jaw
& the lower jaw.

The facial bones also provide

support & protect the entrances to
the respiratory system.

SKULL

PARTS

FUNCTIONS

8 Cranial bones

Are

fused to form immovable joints called

suture.
Protect the brain & the sensory organs.

Eye sockets

to protect the eye ball.

Nasal bones

to support nose tissues

Ear holes

to protect inner part of ears

Maxilla (upper jaw)

to support upper teeth

Mandible (lower jaw)

to support lower teeth, to enable eating &

talking.

VERTEBRAL COLUMN
Known as the spine/ backbone.
Extends from the base of the skull to the pelvic
girdle.
Made up of 33 vertebrae separated from each
other by discs of cartilage (intervertebral discs)
which absorb shocks.
This S-shaped column supports & balances the body
in a vertical plane & protects the spinal cord,
supports the skull & provides a base for the
attachment of muscles to the back.

VERTEBRAL COLUMN
The vertebrae differ in structure &
function in different regions of the
vertebral column.
A vertebra typically consists of a main
body (the centrum), a neural arch &
transverse processes.

VERTEBRAL COLUMN
7 cervical
vertebrae

12 thoracic
vertebrae

5 lumbar
vertebrae
5 sacral
vertebrae
4 caudal
vertebrae

centrum

CERVICAL VERTEBRA

Cervical vertebra

Has
transverse
foramen
- Blood
vessel &
nerve pass

THORACIC VERTEBRA
TYPE OF
POSITION
VERTEBRAE

Thoracic
Vertebra

Thorax

NUMBER OF
VERTEBRAE
12

MAIN CHARACTER

Neural canal/
vertebral foramen
is smaller than
cervical vertebras

Long neural spine/

spinous processes
(for attachment of
back muscle)

Thick & big centrum

Short transverse
processes

THORACIC VERTEBRA (12)

Long & directed

downward
- Spinous & transverse
serve as points of
attachment of muscle
and ligament

LUMBAR VERTEBRA
TYPE OF
VERTEBRAE

Lumbar
Vertebra

POSITION

NUMBER OF
VERTEBRAE

Waist

MAIN CHARACTER

small neural canal/

vertebral foramen

short neural spine

thick & big centrum

long transverse
processes for
muscle attachment

LUMBAR VERTEBRA

Largest &
strongest
- Large centrum
to bear the
weight of the
lower back

SACRUM & COCCYX

TYPE OF
VERTEBRAE

Sacrum

POSITION

NUMBER OF
VERTEBRAE

Pelvic
region

5 fused

MAIN CHARACTER

Vertebrae fused to
each other

Has four pairs of

openings

Triangular

Coccyx

Caudal
region

4 fused

shape

Bones fused to each

other forming a
triangular shape
which tapers at one
end

SACRUM & COCCYX

THE STERNUM & RIBS

The rib cage consists
of 12 pairs of ribs
with the thoracic
vertebrae at the back
portion of the body &
join to the sternum
in the front portion.
Movement of the rib
cage are brought
about by intercostal
muscles between the
ribs.

THE STERNUM & RIBS

The sternum &
ribs enclose &
protect the
internal organs
(the lungs &
heart) & play an
important role
in breathing.

APPENDICULAR SKELETON
Consist of :
Pectoral girdle
1. Humerus
2. Ulna
3. Radius

Pelvic girdle
1. Femur
2. Tibia
3. Fibula

PECTORAL GIRDLE

Consist of scapula &

clavicle.

Links the upper limbs bones

to the axial skeleton.

The scapula : It is a flat,

triangular bone which
provides a surface for the
attachment of muscles.

The clavicle (collarbone) : a

long and S-shaped placed
horizontally above the
scapula.

It links the scapula to the

sternum. It limits the
movements of the scapula.

FORELIMB BONES
Consists of humerus,
radius & ulna.
The Humerus :
The long bones of the
upper arm
Rounded head end fits
into an open socket of the
scapula forming a balland-socket joint (allow
movement in all planes)

 The posterior end of the

humerus forms a hinge joint
with the ulna-radius bones,
allowing movement in one
plane only.
The radius & ulna :
The bones on the
forearm in which the
ulna is longer than the
radius.
It has a notch at its
upper end which
articulates the
humerus at the elbow.

 The carpals :
The bones that form the
wrist.
Consists of 8 small bones

The metacarpals :
The rod-shaped ones that
form the palm.

The phalanges :
The bones that form the
fingers.

PELVIC GIRDLE
Provide connection between the
axial skeleton & lower limbs

Also protect the internal

organs urinary bladder &
reproductive organs.
Made up of two hip bones,
each consists of 3 bones (ilium,
pubis & ischium) that are
joined together by

symphysis

pubic

PELVIC GIRDLE
The pelvic girdle is
attached to the sacrum
of the vertebral column.
The asetabulum / socket
for femur articulates
with each side of the
pelvic girdle at the hip
joint.

Lower limb
Consists of femur, tibia &
fibula.
The femur :
The longest, strongest &
heaviest bone in the body.
The head of femur fits into
the pelvic girdle to form a
joint.
Other end, articulates with
the tibia to form a hinge
joint at the knee.

 The tibia & fibula :

The bones of the lower leg.
Tibia larger than fibula & is
the weight-bearing bone of
the leg.
Fibula is a long & thin bone
not bear any load more
important for attachment of
muscles than for support.
Articulate with the tarsals of
the ankle.

The patella/kneecap :

A small rounded, movable

bone.
Protect the knee joint.

 The tarsals :

The 7 bones that form the ankle.

The metatarsals :

The 5 rod-shaped bones that

form the foot.

The phalanges :

The bones that form the toes.

Figure below shows a part of the skeletal system.

Rajah di bawah menunjukkan sebahagian daripada siatem rangka.

This part is called

Bahagian tersebut adalah..
A Ribs
Tulang rusuk
B Sternum
Sternum
C Vertebrae
Vertebra
D thoracic cage
Sangkar totaks

Organisma yang manakah mempunyai rangka hidrostatik?

How many vertebrae in a vertebral column.

Berapakah jumlah vertebra dalam turus vertebra
A 12
B 19
C30
D33

Which bone is part of the appendicular skeleton?

Tulang yang manakah adalah dari rangka apendaj?
A
B
C
D

The rib
Sangkar rusuk
The skull
Tengkorak
The sternum
sternum
The pectoral girdle
Lengkungan pektoral

Two bones are held together by...

Dua tulang disambungkan bersama melalui..
A a joint
sendi
B a tendon
tendon
C a ligament
ligamen
D a skeletal muscle
otot rangka

10.

Identify the structure that forms part of the axial skeleton.

2.

Figure below shows a vertebra from a vertebral column.

Rajah di bawah menunjukkan satu vertebra daripada turus vertebra

What is this vertebra called?

Apakah nama vertebra tersebut?
A
B
C
D

Cervical
servik
Thoracic
Toraks
Lumbar
Lumbar
Sacrum
Sakrum

2.

Figure below shows a human joint.

Rajah di bawah menunjukkan sendi manusia.

Bone
Y

What is the function of Y ?

Apakah fungsi Y ?
A
B
C
D

To join bone and bone

Untuk menyambungkan tulang dengan tulang
To join bone and muscle
Untuk menyambungkan tulang dengan otot
To protect the bones from wearing away
Untuk melindungi tulang daripada terkeluar
To reduce friction between the ends of the bones
Untuk mengurangkan geseran antara hujung tulang

3.

The diagram below shows three types of vertebrae.

Rajah di bawah menunjukkan tiga jenis vertebra.

The correct position of the vertebrae in the vertebral column below the skull is...
Kedudukan yang betul bagi vertebra tersebut pada turus vertebra di bawah tengkorak ialah

A K, M, L
B M, L, K
C L, K, M
D M, K, L

5.

The diagram below shows a vertebra.

Rajah di bawah menunjukkan satu vertebra.

Identify which of the labels that is the weight-bearing part of a vertebra.

Kenalpasti yang mana satukah label tersebut adalah bahagian vertebra yang
menampung berat
A P
B Q
C R
D S