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Mechanical Metallurgy
George E Dieter
McGraw-Hill Book Company, London (1988)
Plastic
deformation
Fatigue
Fracture
Twinning
Slip
Chemical /
Electro-chemical
degradation
Creep
Microstructural
changes
Twinning
Wear
Corrosion
Phase transformations
Grain growth
Particle coarsening
Physical
degradation
Oxidation
Erosion
Plastic deformation in the broadest sense means permanent deformation in the absence
of external constraints (forces, displacements) (i.e. external constraints are removed).
Plastic deformation of crystalline materials takes place by mechanisms which are very
different from that for amorphous materials (glasses). The current chapter will focus on plastic
deformation of crystalline materials. Glasses deform by shear banding etc. below the glass transition temperature
(Tg) and by flow above Tg.
Though plasticity by slip is the most important mechanism of plastic deformation, there
are other mechanisms as well. Many of these mechanisms may act in
conjunction/parallel to give rise to the observed plastic deformation.
Twinning
Phase Transformation
Creep Mechanisms
Grain rotation
Dislocation climb
Note: Plastic deformation in amorphous materials occur by other mechanisms including flow (~viscous fluid) and shear
banding
Review
Tension / Compression
Tension/Compression
Bending
Shear
Torsion
Bending
Shear
Torsion
Bending
Deformed configuration
Shear
Tension
Compression
Note: modes of deformation in other contexts will be defined in the topic on plasticity
Torsion
Peak ahead
In addition to the modes of deformation considered before the following modes can be
defined w.r.t fracture.
Fracture can be cause by the propagation of a pre-existing crack (e.g. the notches shown in
the figures below) or by the nucleation of a crack during deformation followed by its
propagation.
In fracture the elastic energy stored in the material is used for the creation of new surfaces
(when the crack nucleates/propagates)
Mode I
Modes
of
Deformation
Mode II
Mode III
P
s
A0
L
e
L0
0 initial
Subscript
i instantaneous
Load
Tensile specimen
Stroke
Possible axes
Gauge Length L0
Important Note
L0
e12 = 1
e13 = 0
2L0
[e12 + e23] =
e23 =
L0
Ai
dL
L
ln
L
L0
L0
Ai instantaneous area
P
A0
L
L0
L0
12 = Ln(2)
13 = 0
2L0
[ 12 + 23] = 0
23 = Ln(2)
L0
With true strain things turn out the way they should!
Neck
P
Ai
L
L
P A0
s i s 1 i 1 s(1 e)
A0 Ai
L0
L0
dL
L
ln
L
L0
L0
A0 Li
Ai L0
ln 1
s( 1 e)
ln ( 1 e)
L
1 ln(1+e)
L0
Valid till
necking starts
0.01 0.10
0.20
0.50
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
0.01 0.105
0.22
0.65
1.72
6.39
19.09
53.6
Note that for strains of about 0.4, true and engineering strains can be assumed to be equal. At large strains the
deviations between the values are large.
Important Note
y is yield stress in an uniaxial tension test and should not be used in other states of stress
(other criteria of yield should be used for a generalized state of stress).
Tresca and von Mices criterion are the two most popular ones.
e f (%)
L f L0
L0
100
q(%)
A0 Af
A0
100
q is a better measure of ductility as it does not depend on the gauge length (L0); while, ef
depends on L0. Elongation/strain to necking (uniform elongation) can also be used to avoid
the complication arising from necking.
L L0
eu (%) u
100
L0
Also, q is a more structure sensitive ductility parameter.
Sometimes it is easier to visualize elongation as a measure of ductility rather than a
reduction in area. For this the calculation has be based on a very short gauge length in the
necked region called Zero-gauge-length elongation (e0). e0 can be calculated from q
using constancy of volume in plastic deformation (AL=A0L0).
e0
q
1 q
L A0
1
L0
A 1 q
e0
L L0 A0
1
q
1
1
L0
A
1 q
1 q
ef
L f L0
L0
A0 Af
A0
Neck
Fractured surfaces
A0 Ai
A0
e0
q
1 q
1
q
0 ln 1
ln
1 q
1 q
Note: Further complications arise at strains close to fracture as microvoid nucleation & growth
take place and hence all formulations based on continuum approach (e.g. volume
constancy) etc. are not valid anymore.
Cotd..
uniaxial
exp
a
2R
1
ln 1
A 2 R
Pf
Af
A0
f ln
Af
1
ln
1 q f
, , , T
In the tension experiment just described the temperature (T) is usually kept constant and
the sample is pulled (between two crossheads of a UTM) at a constant velocity. The
crosshead velocity can be converted to strain rate ( ) using the gauge length (L0) of the
specimen. v / L0
At low temperatures (below the recrystallization temperature of the material, T < 0.4Tm)
the material hardens on plastic deformation (YF in the - plot known as work
hardening or strain hardening). The net strain is an important parameter under such
circumstances and the material becomes a partial store of the deformation energy provided.
The energy is essentially stored in the form of dislocations and point defects.
If deformation is carried out at high temperatures (above the recrystallization temperature;
wherein, new strain free grains are continuously forming as the deformation proceeds),
strain rate becomes the important parameter instead of net strain.
Range of strain rates obtained in various experiments
Test
Creep tests
108 to 105
105 to 101
101 to 102
102 to 104
104 to 108
In the - plot the plastic stress and strain are usually expressed by the expression given
below. Where, n is the strain hardening exponent and K is the strength coefficient.
plastic K plastic n
,T
Deviations from this behaviour often observed (e.g. in Austenitic stainless steel) at low
strains (~103) and/or at high strains (~1.0). Other forms of the power law equation are also
considered in literature (e.g. y K plastic n ).
An ideal plastic material (without strain hardening) would begin to neck right at the onset
of yielding. At low temperatures (below recrystallization temperature- less than about
0.5Tm) strain hardening is very important to obtain good ductility. This can be understood
from the analysis of the results of the uniaxial tension test. During tensile deformation
instability in the form of necking localizes deformation to a small region (which now
experiences a triaxial state of stress). In the presence of strain hardening the neck portion
(which has been strained more) hardens and the deformation is spread to other regions,
thus increasing the ductility obtained.
For an experiment done in shear on single crystals the equivalent region to OY can further
be subdivided into:
True elastic strain (microscopic) till the true elastic limit (E)
Onset of microscopic plastic deformation above a stress of A.
For Mo a comparison of these quantities is as follows: E = 0.5 MPa, A = 5 MPa and
0 (macroscopic yield stress in shear) = 50 MPa.
, , , T
K n ,T
K strength coefficient
n strain / work hardening coefficient
Cu and brass (n ~ 0.5) can be given large plastic strain more
easily as compared to steels with n ~ 0.15
When true strain is less than 1, the smaller value of n dominates over a larger value of n
ln
ln
,T
Material
K (MPa)
Annealed Cu
0.54
320
0.49
900
0.26
530
0.10
1570
A m ,T
ln
m
ln
A a constant
,T
m index of strain rate sensitivity
If m = 0 stress is independent of strain rate (stress-strain
curve would be same for all strain rates)
m ~ 0.2 for common metals
If m (0.4, 0.9) the material may exhibit superplastic behaviour
m = 1 material behaves like a viscous liquid (Newtonian flow)
Thermal softening coefficient () is also defined as below:
ln
ln T
Funda Check
As we noted in the beginning of the chapter plastic deformation can occur by many
mechanisms SLIP is the most important of them. At low temperatures (especially in
BCC metals) twinning may also be come important.
At the fundamental level plastic deformation (in crystalline materials) by slip involves the
motion of dislocations on the slip plane finally leaving the crystal/grain* (creating a
step of Burgers vector).
Slip is caused by shear stresses (at the level of the slip plane). Hence, a purely hydrostatic
state of stress cannot cause slip (or twinning for that matter).
A slip system consists of a slip direction lying on a slip plane.
Under any given external loading conditions, slip will be initiated on a particular slip
system if the Resolved Shear Stress (RSS)** exceeds a critical value [the Critical Resolved
Shear Stress (CRSS)].
For slip to occur in polycrystalline materials, 5 independent slip systems are required.
Hence, materials which are ductile in single crystalline form, may not be ductile in
polycrystalline form. CCP crystals (Cu, Al, Au) have excellent ductility.
At higher temperatures more slip systems may become active and hence polycrystalline
materials which are brittle at low temperature, may become ductile at high temperature.
Slip systems
In CCP, HCP materials the slip system consists of a close packed direction on a close packed plane.
Just the existence of a slip system does not guarantee slip slip is competing against other processes
like twinning and fracture. If the stress to cause slip is very high (i.e. CRSS is very high), then fracture
may occur before slip (like in brittle ceramics).
Crystal
Slip plane(s)
Slip direction
FCC
{111}
<110>
12
HCP
(0001)
<1120>
BCC
Not close packed
[111]
12
NaCl
Ionic
{110}
<110>
<110>
12
C
Diamond cubic
{111}
Slip plane(s)
Slip direction
Slip systems
TiO2
Rutile
{101}
<101>
{001}
<110>
CsCl
B2
{110}
{110}
<110>
C, Ge, Si
Diamond cubic
{111}
<110>
12
MgAl2O4
Spinel
{111}
<110>
Al2O3
Hexagonal
(0001)
<1120>
<001>
Slip plane(s)
Slip systems
Cu (FCC)
Fm 3m
{111}
(a/2)< 1 10>
4 x 3 = 12
W (BCC)
Im 3m
{011}
{112}
{123}
(a/2)<11 1>
6 x 2 = 12
12 x 1 = 12
24 x 1 = 24
Mg (HCP)
P63/mmc
{0001}
{10 10}
{10 11}
(a/3)<1120>
1x3=3
3x1=3
6x1=6
Al2O3
R 3c
{0001}
{10 10}
(a/3)<1120>
1x3=3
3x1=3
NaCl
Fm 3m
{110}
{001}
(a/2)< 1 10>
6x1=6
6x1=6
CsCl
Pm 3m
{110}
a<001>
6x1=6
Polyethylene
Pnam
(100)
{110}
(010)
c<001>
1x1=1
2x1=2
1x1=1
Force
Stress
Area 1D
Slip plane
normal
F Cos
A
/
Cos
F
A
Slip direction
A
A'
Cos
Note externally only tensile
forces are being applied
Schmids law
Slip is initiated when
RSS CRSS
CRSS
Yield strength of a single crystal y
Cos Cos
Dislocation
formed by
pushing in
a plane
Step formed
when dislocation
leaves the crystal
Now visualize dislocations being punched in on successive planes moving and finally
leaving the crystal
This sequence of events finally leads to deformed shape which can be approximated to a
rhombus
PN G e
2w
Strengthening mechanisms
Solid solution
Precipitate
&
Dispersoid
Forest dislocation
Grain boundary
Effect of Temperature
Motion of a dislocation can be assisted by thermal energy.
However, motion of dislocations by pure thermal activation is random.
A dislocation can be thermally activated to cross the potential barrier Q to the
neighbouring metastable position.
Strain rate can be related to the temperature (T) and Q as in the equation below.
This thermal activation reduces the Yield stress (or flow stress).
Materials which are brittle at room temperature may also become ductile at high
temperatures.
Ae
kT
d
Strain rate
dt
Metallic
Ionic
Fe-BCC
Fe
Cu-FCC
W-BCC
Ni-FCC
450
Al2O3
Si
300
18-8 SS
150
Ni
Cu
0.0
RT is like HT and P-N
stress is easily overcome
0.2
0.4
T/Tm
0.6
Covalent
dislocation ~ (10 10 )
6
Cold work
Stronger material
Dislocation sources
It is difficult to obtain crystals without dislocations (under special conditions whiskers have
been grown without dislocations).
Dislocation can arise by/form:
Solidification (errors in the formation of a perfect crystal lattice)
Plastic deformation (nucleation and multiplication)
Irradiation
Strain hardening
We had noted that stress to cause further plastic deformation (flow stress) increases with
strain strain hardening. This happens at
Dislocations moving in non-parallel slip planes can intersect with each other results in an
increase in stress required to cause further plastic deformation Strain Hardening / work
hardening
One such mechanism by which the dislocation is immobilized is the Lomer-Cottrell barrier.
Dynamic recovery
In single crystal experiments the rate of strain hardening decreases with
further strain after reaching a certain stress level
At this stress level screw dislocations are activated for cross-slip
The RSS on the new slip plane should be enough for glide
[ 1 1 0]
2
(111)
[1 0 1]
2
( 1 11)
[0 11]
2
(100)
[ 1 1 0]
2
(111)
[1 0 1]
2
( 1 11)
[0 11]
2
(100)
[0 1 1]
Lomer-Cottrell barrier
The red and green dislocations attract each other and move towards their line of intersection
They react as above to reduce their energy and produce the blue dislocation
The blue dislocation lies on the (100) plane which is not a close packed plane
hence immobile acts like a barrier to the motion of other dislocations
0 A
( m/ m3)
0 (MN / m2)
A (N/m)
1.5
1010
0.5
10
100
1014
0.5
10
COLD WORK
strength
ductility
k
y i
d
Hall-Petch Relation
y Yield stress [N/m2]
i Stress to move a dislocation in single crystal [N/m2]
k Locking parameter [N/m3/2]
(measure of the relative hardening contribution of grain boundaries)
Grain size
645
d
(2n1 )1010
Size effect
Size difference
y (MPa)
150
~c
y
Matrix: Cu (r = 1.28 )
Be (1.12)
Solute strengthening of Cu crystal
by solutes of different sizes
100
Zn (1.31)
50
(Values in parenthesis are atomic radius values in )
By i (lattice friction)
X
level of - curve
Solute atoms
Interstitial
3Gsolute
Solute atoms
Substitutional
field
Spherical
distortion
Gsolute / 10
Elastic
Long range
(T insensitive)
Substitutional edge
Modulus
Long range order
Mechanisms of interaction of
dislocations with solute atoms
Solute-dislocation interaction
Stacking fault
Short range
(T sensitive)
Electrical
Glide through the precipitate If the precipitate is coherent with the matrix
Dislocation
Get pinned by the precipitate
A complete list of factors giving rise to hardening due to precipitates/inclusions will be considered later
Growth
Growth
Coherent
Partially coherent
Incoherent
Glide of the dislocation causes a displacement of the upper part of the precipitate
w.r.t the lower part by b ~ cutting of the precipitate.
Schematic views
edge dislocation glide through a coherent precipitate
Precipitate particle
If the particle is sheared, then how does the hardening effect come about?
We have seen that as the dislocation glides through the precipitate it is sheared.
If the precipitate is sheared, then how does it offer any resistance to the motion of the dislocation? I.e.
how can this lead to a hardening effect?
The hardening effect due to a precipitate comes about due to many factors (many of which are system
specific). The important ones are listed in the tree below.
Hardening effect
The next dislocation arriving (similar to the first one), feels a repulsion from the
dislocation loop and hence the stress required to drive further dislocations increases.
Additionally, the effective separation distance (through which the dislocation has to bow)
reduces from d to d1.
(Complete List)
d b vd
In a UTT why does the plot not continue along OY (straight line)?
Funda Check
When stress is increased beyond the yield stress the mechanism of deformation changes.
Till Y in the s-e plot, bond elongation (elastic deformation) gives rise to the strain.
After Y, the shear stress resulting from the applied tensile force, tends to move
dislocations (and cause slip) rather than stretch bonds as this will happen at lower
stresses as compared to bond stretching (beyond Y).
If there are not dislocations (e.g. in a whisker) (and for now we ignore other mechanism of
deformation), the material will continue to load along the straight line OY till
dislocations nucleate in the crystal.
TWINNING