Geology and Earth Resources

Tectonic elements of indian subcontinent

Definition:

The Indian subcontinent, also Indian Subcontinent, is a

region of the Asian (and, in turn, the Eurasian) continent
on the Indian tectonic plate from the Hindu Kush or Hindu
Koh, Himalayas and including the Kuen Lun and
Karakoram ranges, forming a land mass which extends
southward into the Indian Ocean.

It is sometimes synonymous with South Asia,[1] and

various other terms used for the region.

Geology
Most of this region rests on a distinct tectonic plate, the
Indian Plate (the northerly portion of the Indo-Australian
Plate), and is isolated from the rest of Asia by mountain
barriers.

A component of Pangaea some 250 million years ago, the

subcontinent split from Gondwana during the Cretaceous
period some 90 million years ago, and then drifted north
before colliding with the Eurasian Plate about 50-55 (or
~35) million years ago and giving birth to the Himalayan
range and the Tibetan plateau.
The subcontinent continues to move northeastward some
5 cm annually, pushing the Himalayas up higher.

Earth as a Layered
Sphere
Core: Interior of the earth; composed of a dense,
intensely hot mass of metal that is thousands of
kilometers in diameter; contains metal
Surrounding the core is the mantle: Less dense than
the core; contains oxygen, nitrogen, magnesium
Outermost layer of earth is the crust: cool,
lightweight, outermost layer of the earths surface
that floats on the soft underlying layers- where the
seafloor and continents are

Tectonic Processes
The upper layer of the mantle has convection currents
that break the overlying crust in huge blocks called
Tectonic Plates: Huge blocks of the earths crust that
slide around slowly, pulling apart (diverge) to open
new ocean basins or crashing into each other
(converge) to create new, larger landmasses
When an oceanic plate collides with a continental
landmass, the continental plate will ride up over the
seafloor.
Continents drift together giant landmass (i.e.
Pangaea)

Tectonic Processes (cont.)

Earthquakes are caused by grinding and jerking as
plates slide past each other or as they converge or
diverge
Mountain ranges are pushed up at the margins of
colliding plates (i.e. Himalayas- Indian subcontinent
into Asia)
Speed of processes vary- 1cm a year to 18cm a year

2004 Indian Ocean earthquake

The 9.3 moment magnitude 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake was
caused by the release of stresses built up along the subduction
zone where the Indian Plate is sliding under the Burma Plate in the
eastern Indian Ocean, at a rate of 6 cm/yr (2.5 in/yr).
The Sunda Trench is formed along this boundary where the IndoAustralian and Eurasian Plates meet. Earthquakes in the region are
either caused by thrust faulting, where the fault slips at right
angles to the trench; or strike-slip faulting, where material to the
east of the fault slips along the direction of the trench.
Like all similarly large earthquakes, the December 26, 2004 event
was caused by thrust-faulting. A 100 km (60 mi) rupture caused
about 1,600 km (994 mi) of the interface to slip, which moved the
fault 15 m (50 ft) and lifted the sea floor several meters (yards),
creating the great tsunami.

Rocks and Minerals

Mineral: naturally occurring, inorganic, solid element
or composed with a definite chemical composition
and a regular internal crystal structure
Most fundamental characteristics: 1) Chemical
Composition and 2) Crystal Structure
No 2 Minerals are the same

Rock: solid, cohesive, aggregate of one or more

minerals

The Rock Cycle

The rock cycle includes a variety of geologic processes
that can transform any rock

The Rock Cycle (cont.)

Three major rock classifications: igneous,
sedimentary, and metamorphic
Igneous Rocks: The most common rock type; made
by cooling magma
Sedimentary rock is formed from the long-term
deposit and compaction of sediments into rock.
Metamorphic rock is rock formed when another
type of rock is changed by pressure, heat, and
tectonic processes. (i.e. limestone marble)

IGNEOUS ROCK

SEDIMENTARY ROCK

METAMORPHIC
ROCK

Weathering
Mechanical weathering is the physical
breakup of rocks into smaller pieces without
changing the chemical composition.
Chemical weathering is the selective removal
or alteration of specific components that
leads to weakening and disintegration of the
rock

Economic Geology and

Mineralogy
Economic geology is the study of minerals that are
heavily used in manufacturing and an important part
of commerce.
Metals have been very important in human affairs (i.e.
Stone Age)
Most economically valuable resources exist everywhere
in small amounts

Metals & Nonmetals

Metals consumed in greatest quantity: iron,
aluminum, manganese, copper and chromiumproduced mainly in mountainous areas
Nonmetals (covers silicate minerals to sand, gravel,
salts, etc.): durable, highly valuable, and easily
portable
i.e. Gemstones
Sand and gravel production comprise by far the
greatest volume and dollar value of all nonmetal
mineral resources.

Environmental Effects
of Resource Extraction
Mining and purifying all of the mineral resources can
have severe environmental and social consequences
Can affect water quality: i.e. sulfuric acid is produced
when gold and other metals are mined from sulfide
ores- DANGEROUS
Chemical substances can contaminate lakes and
streams

Mining
Placer mining- washing out metals deposited in the gravel of
streambeds (i.e. gold) destroys streambeds but fills the water
with suspended solids that smother aquatic life
Other types of mining: open-pit mining, strip mining, and
underground mining

Risk of fires: inaccessibility and size of the fires make many

impossible to extinguish and control
Toxic Soup in metal mines can leak into lakes and endanger
wildlife- 12,000 miles of rivers and streams in the U.S. are
contaminated by mine drainage
1997 federal Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act
requires better restoration of strip-mined lands; but restoration
is difficult because it is expensive

Processing Ores
Metals are extracted from ores by heating or with
chemical solvents- releases large quantities of toxic
materials
Smelting: roasting ore to release metals; major source
of air pollution
Heap-Leach Extraction: piling crushed ore in huge
heaps and spraying it with a dilute alakine-cyanide
solution; large water pollutant

Conserving Geologic Resources

Recycling
Metals are easily recyclable and require
much less energy than extracting new
metals (i.e. Aluminum)

New materials can be substituted for old

Using iron and steel replaced by polymers,
aluminum, etc.

Geologic Hazards
Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, floods, and
landslides and other catastrophic events, though rare,
have shaped the earth significantly

Earthquakes can be very

destructive
Earthquakes are sudden movements in the earths crust
that occur along faults where one rock mass slides past
another one
Mysterious, sudden, and violent
Worst death toll occurs in cities with poorly constructed
buildings
Most seismically active region in the U.S. is along the west
coast where tectonic plates are colliding

Tsunamis are giant seismic sea swells generated from the

center of an earthquake. They are incredibly destructive to
coastal areas.

Volcanoes
Volcanoes and undersea magma vents produce much of the
earths crust but release large volumes of ash and dust into the
air can block sunlight
Ring of Fire- seismic activity and active volcanoes around the
edge of the Pacific Ocean
More than 500 million people live in the danger zone around
volcanoes
Nuees ardentes (glowing clouds) are deadly, denser than air
mixtures of hot gases and ash like those that inundated Pompeii
Mudslides are also dangerous

Landslides
Mass wasting: geological materials are moved down
slope from one place to another
i.e. Rockslides and avalanches
Over $1 billion in property damage is done every year by
landslides in the U.S.

Many human activities such as road construction and

forest clearing increase the frequency and damage
done by landslides

Thank you