Organizational Behavior:

Leadership
Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Managers and Leaders

1. Administers

1. Innovates

2. A copy

2. An original

3. Maintains

3. Develops

4. Focuses on system and structure

4. Focuses on people

5. Relies on control

5. Inspires trust

6. Short-range view

6. Long-range perspective

7. Asks how and when

7. Asks what and why

8. Eye on the bottom line

8. Eye on horizon

9. Imitates

9. Originates

10. Accepts the status quo

10. Challenges the status quo

11. Classic good soldier

11. Own person

12. Does things right

12. Does the right thing

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

1- Trait
Perspective

5-Romance
Perspective

Leadership
Perspectives

4-Transformational
Perspective

2-Behavior
Perspective

3-Contingency
Perspective

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

1- Trait Perspective
Leadership Traits: represent the personal characteristics that
differentiate leaders from followers.
Historic findings reveal that leaders and followers vary by
- intelligence (Emotional intelligence)
- dominance
- self-confidence
- level of energy and activity (Drive and Leadership motivation)
- task-relevant knowledge
- Honesty and Integrity

Contemporary findings show that

- people tend to perceive that someone is a leader when he or
she exhibits traits associated with intelligence, masculinity, and dominance
- people want their leaders to be credible
- credible leaders are honest, forward-looking, inspiring, and competent

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

1- Trait Perspective
Gender and leadership
men were seen as displaying more overall and task leadership and women were
perceived as displaying more social leadership.
- women used a more democratic or participative style than men, and men used
a more autocratic and directive style than women
- men and women were equally assertive
- women executives, when rated by their peers, managers and direct reports,
scored higher than their male counterparts on a variety of effectiveness criteria
Past evidence that women rated less favorably than equivalent male leaders due
to stereotyping
Recent evidence that women rated more favorably than men, particularly on
emerging leadership styles (coaching, participating)
Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

2 - Behavior Perspective

The Iowa Leadership Studies

Ohio State Studies identified two critical dimensions of leader behavior.

1. Consideration: creating mutual respect and trust with followers
2. Initiating Structure: organizing and defining what group
members should be doing

University of Michigan Studies identified two leadership styles that were

similar to the Ohio State studies
- one style was employee centered
- and the other was job centered

Blake and Moutons Managerial Grid represents four leadership styles found
by crossing concern for production and concern for people

1. Authoritarian
2. Democratic
3. Laissez-faire

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

2 - Behavior Perspective
People-oriented Behaviors
Showing mutual trust and respect
Concern for employee needs
Desire to look out for employee welfare

Task-oriented Behaviors
Assign specific tasks
Ensure employees follow rules
Push employees to reach peak performance

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

The Managerial Grid

1

(1,9)

(9,9)

Concern for People

2
3
4
5

(5,5)

6
7
8

(9,1)

(1,1)

Concern for Production

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

3 - Contingency Perspective
Fiedlers Contingency Model

The Path-Goal Theory

H. & B. Situational Leadership Theory

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Findings of the Feidler Model

High

Performance

People-Oriented
Task-Oriented

Low
Favorable
Category
Leader-Member
Relations
Task Structure
Position Power

Moderate

II

Good
High
Strong

Unfavorable

Good

III
Good

IV
Good

V
Poor

VI
Poor

VII
Poor

VII
Poor

High
Weak

Low
Strong

High
Weak

High
Strong

High
Weak

Low
Strong

Low
Weak

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Houses Path-Goal Theory

Employee Characteristics
- Locus of control
- Task ability
- Need for achievement
- Experience
- Need for clarity

Leadership Styles
Directive
Supportive
Participative
Achievement oriented

Employee Attitudes
and Behavior
- Job satisfaction
- Acceptance of leader
- Motivation

Environmental Factors
- Employees task
- Authority system
- Work group
Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Path-Goal Contingencies
Employee
Contingencies

Directive Supportive Participative Achievement

Skill/Experience

low

low

high

high

Locus of Control

external

external

internal

internal

Environmental
Contingencies

Directive Supportive Participative Achievement

Task Structure

nonroutine

routine

nonroutine

Team Dynamics

ve norms

low cohesion

+ve norms

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Hersey and Blanchards

Situational Leadership Theory
Leader Behavior

Relationship Behavior
(supportive behavior)

High

Low
Low
High
R4

Participating
S3
Share ideas and
facilitate in
decision making

Selling
S2
Explain decisions and
provide opportunity for
clarification

Delegating
S4
Turn over
responsibility for
decisions and
implementation

Telling
S1
Provide specific
instructions and closely
supervise performance

Task Behavior

High

Follower Readiness
Moderate
R3
R2
Follower-Directed

Low
R1

Leader-Directed

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Leader Participation Model

Employee Involvement Continuum
Increased Leader Control

Increased Employee Involvement

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Contingency Variables in the Revised Leader-

Participation Model
1. Importance of the decision.
2. Importance of subordinate commitment to the decision.
3. Whether leader has enough information to make a decision.
4. How well-structured the problem is.
5. Whether autocratic decisions would be supported by subordinates.
6. Whether subordinates buy into the organizations goals.
7. Whether subordinates disagree over solution alternatives.
8. Whether subordinates know enough to make a good decision.
9. Time constraints that may limit the involvement of subordinates.

10. Cost justification for gathering geographically dispersed subordinates.

11. Importance of minimizing the time it takes to make a decision.
12. Importance of participation to developing decision-making skills.
Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

4 - Transformational Perspective
Transformational leaders
Leading -- changing the organization to fit the environment
Develop, communicate, enact a vision

Transactional leaders
Managing -- linking job performance to rewards
Ensure employees have necessary resources
Apply contingency leadership theories
.

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Transformational Leadership Elements

Building
Commitment

Creating
a Vision

Transformational
Leadership
Modeling
the Vision

Communicating
the Vision

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Visionary Leadership
Live
the Vision

Express
the Vision
Extend
the Vision

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Self-confidence

A compelling
vision

Extraordinary
behavior

Charismatic
Leadership
Image as
a change agent

Strong
convictions

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Type of Charismatic Leadership Styles

1.Envisioning
2.Energizing
3.Enabling
Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Transactional versus Charismatic Leadership

Charismatic Leadership: emphasizes

symbolic leader behavior that transforms

employees to pursue organizational goals over selfinterests

Charismatic Leaders
-

use visionary and inspirational messages

rely on non-verbal communication
appeal to ideological values
attempt to intellectually stimulate employees
display confidence in self and followers
set high performance expectations
Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Charismatic Model of Leadership

Organizational
Culture
Adaptive

Leader
behavior
Leader establishes
a vision
Leader establishes
high performance
expectations and
displays confidence
in him/herself and
the collective ability
to realize the vision
Leader models the
desired values,
traits, beliefs, and
behaviors needed to
realize the vision

Effects on
followers and
work groups
Increased intrinsic
motivation, achievement
orientation, and goal
pursuit
Increased identification
with the leader and the
collective interests of
organizational members
Increased cohesion
among workgroup
members
Increased self-esteem,
self-efficacy, and intrinsic
interests in goal
accomplishment
Increased role modeling
of charismatic leadership

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Outcomes
Personal
commitment to
leader and
vision
Self-sacrificial
behavior

Organizational
commitment
Task
meaningfulness
and satisfaction

Increased
individual
group, and
organizational
performance

The Leader-Member Exchange

(LMX Model)
This model is based on the idea that one of two
distinct types of leader-member exchange
relationships evolve, and these exchanges are related
to important work outcomes.
- in-group exchange: a partnership characterized by
mutual trust, respect and liking
- out-group exchange: a partnership characterized by
a lack of mutual trust, respect and liking
Research supports this model

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Substitutes for Leadership

Substitutes for leadership represent situational

variables that can substitute for, neutralize, or enhance the

effects of leadership. Conditions that limit a leaders influence
or make a particular leadership style unnecessary.
Research shows that substitutes for leadership directly
influence employee attitudes and performance.
Examples:
Training and experience replace directive leadership
Cohesive team replaces supportive leadership
Self-leadership replaces achievement-oriented leadership

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Workers That Are

Experienced or
Highly-Trained

Jobs That Are

Unambiguous or
Highly Satisfying

Is Leadership
Always Relevant?
Workgroups
That Are Cohesive

Goals That Are

Formalized or
Rules That Are Rigid

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Substitutes for Leadership

RelationshipOriented or
Considerate
Leader
Behavior is
Unnecessary

Characteristic

Task-Oriented or
Initiating Structure
Leader Behavior is
Unnecessary

Of the Subordinate
1. Ability, experience, training, knowledge

2. Need for Independence

3. Professional orientation

4. Indifference toward organizational rewards

Of the Task
5. Unambiguous and Routine

6. Methodically invariant

7. Provides its own feedback concerning

accomplishment

8. Intrinsically satisfying.

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Substitutes for Leadership (cont)

RelationshipOriented or
Considerate
Leader
Behavior is
Unnecessary

Characteristic

Task-Oriented or
Initiating Structure
Leader Behavior is
Unnecessary

Of the Organization
9. Formalization (explicit plans, goals, and areas
of responsibility)

10. Inflexibility (rigid, unbending rules and

procedures)

11. Highly specified and active advisory and staff

functions

12. Closely knit, cohesive work groups

13. Organizational rewards not with the leaders

control

14. Spatial distance between superior and

subordinate

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Servant and Superleadership

Servant Leadership represents a philosophy in
which leaders focus on increased service to
others rather than to oneself.
A superleader is someone who leads others to
lead themselves by developing employees selfmanagement skills.
Superleaders attempt to increase employees
feelings of personal control and intrinsic
motivation.

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Characteristics of the Servant-Leader

1. Listening

Servant-leaders focus on listening to

identify and clarify the needs and desires of
a group.

2. Empathy

Servant-leaders try to empathize with

others feelings and emotion. An individuals
good intentions are assumed even when he
or she performs poorly.

3. Healing

Servant-leaders strive to make themselves

and others whole in the face of failure or
suffering.

4. Awareness

Servant-leaders are very self-aware or their

strengths and limitations.

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Characteristics of the Servant-Leader (continued)

5. Persuasion

Servant-leaders rely more on persuasion

than positional authority when making
decisions and trying to influence others.

6. Conceptualization

7. Foresight

Servant-leaders take the time and effort

to develop broader based conceptual
thinking. Servant-leaders seek an
appropriate balance between a shortterm, day-to-day focus and a long-term,
conceptual orientation.
Servant-leaders have the ability to foresee
future outcomes associated with a current
course of action or situation.

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Characteristics of the Servant-Leader (continued)

8. Stewardship
9. Commitment to

the growth of
people

10. Building
Community

Servant-leaders assume that they are

stewards of the people and resources they
manage.
Servant-leaders are committed to people
beyond their immediate work role. They
commit to fostering an environment that
encourages personal, professional, and
spiritual growth.
Servant-leaders strive to create a sense of
community both within and outside the
work organization.

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

What Is Trust?
Integrity: honesty and truthfulness
Competence: knowledge and skill
Consistency: reliability and predictability
Loyalty: willingness to protect

Openness: give full true

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Three Types of Trust

Deterrence
Based
Knowledge
Based

Identification
Based

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Building Trust
1. Practice Openness
2. Promote Fairness
3. Express Feelings
4. Keep Confidences
5. Be Consistent
6. Keep Promises
7. Tell the Truth

8. Show Competence

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Authentic Leadership
1.

Confident

2.

Hopeful

3.

Optimistic

4.

Resilient

5.

Transparent

6.

Moral / ethical

7.

Future oriented

8.

Associate building
Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.