UPES

LECTURE- 05
05.09.13

FLUID SATURATION
MULTIPHASE FLOW

FLUID DISPLACEMENTS
FLUID COMPATIBILITIES
FLUID INJECTABILITY
THERMAL CONSTRAINT
PHASE EQUILIBRIUM

A During deposition, reservoir rocks was

P completely saturated with water and water
E wet.
the
hydrocarbon
migrated
/
2 As
accumulated in the reservoir rock, a portion
of connate water is displaced.
This connate water may only be displaced
to the extent of attaining an equilibrium
depends on:
(1) pressure arising from the fluid density
difference,
This must be equal to (2) capillary pressure between the fluid
phases at specific level.
Po - Pw = g h (w - o ) = Pc

 This pressure difference, which is

equal to capillary pressure Pc ,
increases with height above the
hydrocarbon-water Contact.
If at some elevation, the water
phase becomes discontinuous,
then this water saturation (Swir )
becomes essentially constant. i.e.
water
saturation
will
be
independent of the pressure
difference
between the two phases.

Fluid Saturation
Taking a hypothetical water contact, where the water contact
is 100%,the pressure difference between the phases at the
same elevation say h will be Po - Pw = g h (w - o )

Fluid Saturations
Definition - Saturation therefore, is defined as that
fraction, or percent, of the pore volume occupied by
a particular fluid .
(oil, gas, or water)
Saturation is an intensive property.*
Saturation should always be expressed as a fraction,
and can be expressed as:
1. Saturation is a fraction of pore volume using a
notation like 0.20 PV
2. Similarly, it may also be used as a fraction of bulk
volume use notation for porosity like 0.15 BV
(notation for porosity)
,* that does not depend on the system size or the amount of material in
the system.

Mathematical Concept
1

The above mathematical concept of saturation to each

reservoir fluid gives the following relations:

The saturation values are based on pore volume

The saturation of each individual phase ranges
between zero to 100
Sum of the saturations is 100%,

PHYSICAL CONCEPT
Vp = Vw +

Vo +

Vg

1 = Sw +

So +

Sg

Vg

(%)

Vo
Vw

Sw = Vw / Vp

So = Vo / Vp

Sg = Vg / Vp

Saturation is dependent on intermolecular

or inter granular force(surface tension)

water

Oil/gas

to 15 dyn/cm

Water/oil :

15 to 35dyn/cm

Water/gas :

35 to

55 dyn/cm

Air/Mercury : 480 dyn/cm

Air/Water

72 dyn/cm

Impact on reservoir
The fluids in the reservoirs are believed to have
reached a state of equilibrium and are separated
according to their density. (gas/oil/water)
The connate water will be distributed through
out the oil and gas zones .
The water in these zones will reduced to some
irreducible minimum irreducible water saturation.
This reduces the amount of space available for oil
and gas. (OOIP)
Distribution of connate water depends on
permeability, lithology, and height above the free
water table.

A
P
E
1

Critical saturations.
ARE THE SATURAIONS THAT EFFECTS THE
MOVEMENT OF FLUIDS IN THE RESERVOIRS
1

Critical oil saturation, Soc

For the oil phase to flow, the saturation

of the oil must exceed a certain value
which is termed critical oil saturation i.e.
At or below this particular saturation, the
oil remains in the pores and, for all
practical purposes, will not flow.

Residual oil saturation, Sor

When the nonwetting phase when it is being
displaced by a wetting phase, the remaining oil
left is quantitatively characterized by a saturation
called as Residual oil saturation SOr :its value is
always more than critical oil saturation.

Movable oil saturation, Som

It is defined as the fraction of pore volume
occupied by movable oil and expressed as:
Som = 1 - Swc - Soc

Critical gas saturation, Sgc

The gas phase remains immobile until its

saturation exceeds a certain saturation, called
critical gas saturation, above which gas
begins to move. It is a property related to
pressure decline below the bubble point.
5

Critical water saturation, SWC

The critical water saturation, connate water

saturation, and irreducible water saturation
are extensively used interchangeably to
define the maximum water saturation at which
the water phase will remain immobile.

Average saturations.
Averaging of saturation data requires that the
saturation values be weighted by both:
The interval thickness hi and porosityI .
Occupied by each fluid in the reservoir and
given as:

where the subscript i refers to any individual

measurement and hi represents the depth
interval to which i , Soi, Sgi, and Swi apply.

Example
Calculate average oil and connate water
saturation from the following measurements:

Solution
Reconstruct the table to facilitate the required
calculation as below:

DETERMINING
THE SATURATIONS

A DIRECT METHODS
1.RETRORT METHOD
2.VACUUM DISTILLATION METHOD
3.DISTILLATION-EXTRACTION METHOD
INDIRECT METHODS
B 1. CONVERTING P S LAB CURVE TO
c
w
Pc Sw RESERVOIR CURVE

Analysis of capillary forces

2.SATURATION FROM CROSS SECTION MAP

3.USING SCANNER SURVEY
METHODS COMPRISING
INTERPROPERTY CORRELATIONS
1.Cory model
2.Pirson model
3.OFM

DIRECT METHODS

1.Retort Method
Liquid saturations are obtained
by
distillation of a sample at atmospheric
pressure.
Liquids in the samples are vaporized in
the heating chamber.
These vapors are condensed in in a
condenser.
Condensed fluids are collected in pre
calibrated receiving tubes.
Percent saturation are calculated using
simple mathematics .

Apparatus: Multiple sample

Retort System

Retort Method-Implications
Advantage
Collective analysis of large number of samples.
Each recovery is obtained by direct measurement.
Possible error from the weight of salt deposited
from water in the sample is eliminated.
Possible error from loss of sand grains in handling
is eliminated.
Oil content is measured directly.
Limitations
Calibration data availability.
Accuracy of water saturation in presence of clay.
Thermal control of retort.

2.VACUUM DISTILLATION METHOD

Method consist of heating the core
sample in an evacuated chamber.
Reduced pressure is 0.1mm , temp. is
446 F and duration is 1 hour.
Condensing vapors are collected in
pre calibrated tubes.
Saturations are determined from
recording the volume of recovered
fluids.

Core heating chamber

Apparatus

core sample

Vapor condensing system

To vacuum

Calibrated tube1.00cc

VACUUM DISTILLATION

VACUUM DISTILLATION METHOD:

IMPLICATIONS

Advantages:
Oil& Water contents are measured
directly and independently
Suitable for high gravity crudesamples
Stable mineral do not interfere.
Limitations:
Requires oil correlation data for oil
contents especially for low gravity
crude samples.

3.DISTILLATION-EXTRACTION METHOD
Simultaneous determination of oil and
water saturations
Distilling water from sample, condensing it and
accumulating in a calibrated tube.
The oil is removed by solvent extraction and is
determined by weight loss during- the
distillation-extraction operation & the water is
determined from the weight of accumulated
water.
Solvent used for the extraction has the boiling
point above that of water, so that water within
the core is distilled out as it is heated by the
solvent vapors.

Apparatus
The apparatus consist of Pyrex glass
flask heated by suitable means
It is provided with a reflux condenser
that discharges into trap
The trap serves to collect and to
measure the condensed water
It also returns the solvent to the flask.
An extraction thimble in which core is
placed is supported in the flask.

Apparatus

Method Implication

Advantage
Simple
Very accurate for water content
Operational temperature is comparatively
low hence decomposition of minerals is
avoided.
Limitation
Loss of sand grains is possible source of
error
Water vapors effects the oil content.

Indirect Methods

M-1

CAPILLARY PRESSURE CURVE

Capillary
pressure
curves
are
obtained in the laboratory and then
plotted against water saturations to
obtain (Pc - Sw) lab curve
This pressure is then converted to
reservoir condition plotted against
water saturations to obtain the
specific (Pc - Sw) reservoir curve.
Hence Pc reservorir so obtained is
plotted to know the water saturation

M-2

FROM RESERVOIR CROSS

SECTION

Typical cross section characteristics

Saturations are obtained as a function of
depth and according to heterogeneity of
rock.
Large reservoirs are characterized zone
by zone ( ,k , sw )
For small reservoir, it is often adequate
to calculate a mean sw ,the height of
transition zone (hTZ) and depth of the
water/oil interface, that corresponds to a
plane surface only in fairly permeable
reservoir.

M-3

Survey with scanner

X ray scanner permits complete core
analysis with an computer aided
interpretation.
It helps to obtain the cross sections
perpendicular, parallel or oblique to the
axis of object.
A 2-D or 3-D images are available on
the screen.
The method as such allow visualization
of fluid saturation

Inter property correlations

Characteristics
Various authors have given
interpretable correlations that leads to
estimation of fluid saturations.
Cory model
Pirson model
OFM is the user friendly computer
aided statistical model .
Validation of model is integral part of
its application.

Example

Correlation with wetting phase (water):

Krw = ( Sw* )a,
where: a has the numerical value 4
Sw* =(Sw - Sc ) /1- Sc
where: Sc is irreducible water saturation

OFM

FACTORS
AFFECTING FLUID SATURATIONS.

1. CORE FLUSHING
Flushing of core by filtrate from drilling fluids
(especially for overbalanced drilling)
water filtrate
water based mud
oil emulsion mud
oil filtrate
oil based mud
inverted oil emulsion mud
gas filtrate
air drilling
foam drilling

2. CONDITION VARIATION
SUB SURFACE TO SURFACE
Changes in pressure and temperature as
core sample is brought from bottom hole
conditions to surface conditions

Flushing
During
Drilling

Saturation at Surface
Compared to Reservoir

Trip to
Surface

Sw

? probably

So

Sg

Water based drilling mud

Flushing
During
Drilling

Trip to
Surface

Saturation at Surface
Compared to
Reservoir

Sw

So

Sg

Oil based drilling mud

APPLICATION OF SATURATIONS
(CORES)
Water Based Mud
presence of oil zone
original oil/gas contact
original oil/water contact
Oil Based Mud
fairly accurate minimum interstitial water
saturation
original oil/water contact

Estimating Fluid Contact Depths

Gas

Oil

So

50

Depth

Water

So 0 in gas zone
So > 0.15 in oil production zone
0 < So < 0.15 in water production zone

RELATIVE PERMEABILITY
Typical two-phase flow behavior-oil and water

4
1

Point 1 on the wetting phase relative

permeability shows that a small
saturation of the nonwetting phase will
drastically reduce the relative
permeability of the wetting phase.
Point 2 on the nonwetting phase relative
permeability curve shows
that the nonwetting phase begins to flow
at the relatively low saturation
of the nonwetting phase. The saturation
of the oil at this point is called critical oil
saturation Soc.
Point 3 on the wetting phase relative
permeability curve shows that the
wetting phase will cease to flowThe
saturation of the water at this point is
referred to as the irreducible water
saturation Swi

oil as nonwetting and water as wetting phase

krw + kro, is less than 1, in regions B and C

Point 4 on the nonwetting phase

relative permeability curve shows that, at
the lower saturations of the wetting
phase, changes in the wetting phase
saturation have only a small effect on the
magnitude of the nonwetting phase
relative permeability curve as the small
pore spaces which do not contribute to
flow.

Fluid movement/saturation

1. Volume of water (Sw ) decreases with radii decrease

2. There is inverse relationship between Pc and Sw
3. This curve that specify Water Drainage Process;a
process in which 100% water saturated media
(core) is displaced with oil. Point 1 to 2
4. The curve that specify water Imbibitions Process : a
process in which oil is displaced with water. Point 2
to 3

5.At specific point where Sw is maximum and

is given by : Pc = 0
6. A point where Sor can not be reduced further Pc =
-ve (Point-3)

Properties inter relations

Oil/gas System
Since the connate (irreducible) water
normally occupies the smallest pores in
the presence of oil and gas, it appears to
make little difference whether water or oil
that would also be immobile in these small
pores occupies these pores.
Consequently, in applying the gas-oil
relative permeability data to a reservoir,
the total liquid saturation is normally used
as a basis for evaluating the relative
permeability to the gas and oil.

 Oil/gas pair
The observations are similar.
Gas is a non wetting phase/oil is wettig
phase and will have a concave shape
upward.
Minimum gas saturation is required for
gas to be mobile called critical gas
saturation Sg c
Before this saturations, gas bubble
formed are not able to move. Sgc is few
percent

In terms of liquid (oil & water) saturations

In terms of gas/oil saturations

Let it be known

Darcy's equation is a part of many of the flow

analysis done by petroleum engineers
the areas where Darcy's equation plays a role
are:
Well test analysis
Core flooding
Fractional flow equation identifying
displacement efficiencies
Reservoir simulation
It is not used volumetric analysis and classical
material balance equations

Example-1
Calculate average oil and connate water
saturation from the following measurements:

Solution
Reconstruct the table to facilitate the required
calculation as below:

Example-2
The volumes of oil and water recovered from D&S method were 4.32
and 1.91 ml, respectively. Prior to this experiment, the bulk volume was
measured to be 34.98 ml and the grain volume was 26.34 ml. Determine
the saturations of this sample.
Solution
The following stepwise procedure is presented.
a. The pore volume of the sample is, Vp = Vb Vg = 8.64 ml.
b. The porosity of the sample is 24.7%.
c. Applying Eq.

d. The gas saturation cannot be measured and therefore is determined by the

volume balance