Chap 7 Resistance and Powering of Ship

Recall Static Equilibrium!

What are the forces in the xaxis of the ship?
Resistance or Drag
Thrust (Propulsion)
We will first look at propulsion,
then drag in this chapter.
41 knots!

Ship Drive Train and Power

7.2 Ship Drive Train System

Engine

Reduction
Gear

Strut Screw

Bearing

Seals

THP
BHP

Shaft
SHP

DHP

Ship Drive Train and Power

Horse Power in Drive Train
Brake Horse Power (BHP)
- Power output at the shaft coming out of the engine before

the reduction gears

Shaft Horse Power (SHP)

- Power output after the reduction gears (at shaft)

- SHP=BHP - losses in reduction gear

Ship Drive Train and Power

Delivered Horse Power (DHP)
- Power delivered to the propeller

- DHP=SHP losses in shafting, shaft bearings and seals

Thrust Horse Power (THP)
- Power created by the screw/propeller (ie prop thrust)
- THP=DHP Propeller losses

E/G

BHP

R/G

SHP

Relative Magnitudes?

BHP>SHP>DHP>THP

Shaft
Bearing

DHP

Prop.

THP

Hull

EHP

7.3 Effective Horse Power (EHP)

EHP : The power required to move the ship hull at a given

speed in the absence of propeller action (related to resistance)

(EHP is not related with Power Train System)
EHP can be determined from the towing tank experiments at
the various speeds of the model ship.
EHP of the model ship is converted into EHP of the full scale
ship by the Froudes Law.
EHP is approximately equal to THP (usually slightly less)
V
Towing Tank

Measured EHP
Towing carriage

E ffe c ti v e H o r s e p o w e r , E H P ( H P )

Effective Horse Power (EHP)

POWER CURVE
YARD PATROL CRAFT

1000

800

600

400

200

0
0

10

12

14

16

Ship Speed, Vs (Knots)

Typical EHP Curve of YP

What EHP is required for the 12 knot YP cruise?

Effective Horse Power (EHP)

Efficiencies
Hull Efficiency

EHP
H
THP
- Hull efficiency changes due to hull-propeller interactions.
- Well-designed ship :
H 1
- Poorly-designed ship :

H 1

Well-designed

Poorly-designed

- Flow is not smooth.

- THP is reduced.
- High THP is needed
to get designed speed.

Effective Horse Power (EHP)

Efficiencies (contd)
EHP
Propeller Efficiency

propeller

Screw

THP

DHP

DHP

THP

SHP
Propulsive Coefficient (PC) ~ An overall measure of drive train
efficiency

EHP
p
SHP

p 0.6 for well designed propeller

7.5 Total Hull Resistance

Total Hull Resistance (RT)
The force that the ship experiences opposite to the motion of
the ship as it moves.
EHP Calculation

ft
RT (lb) VS
s

EHP(HP )
ft lb

550
s HP

RT total hull resistance

VS speed of ship

ft lb ft J
RT V S lb
Watts : Power
s
s
s
1 Watts 1 / 550 H P

Total Hull Resistance (cont)

Coefficient of Total Hull Resistance
- Non-dimensional value of total resistance

lb
RT

non - dimension
2
CT
2
lb s 2 ft 2
0.5 Vs S
4
ft
ft s
CT Coefficien t of total hull resistance in calm water
RT Total hull resistance
Fluid density
VS Speed of ship
S wetted surface area on the submerged hull

Total Hull Resistance (cont)

Coefficient of Total Hull Resistance (contd)
-Total Resistance of full scale ship can be determined using

CT , , S and VS

RT (lb) 0.5SVS CT
2

C T : determinedby the model test

: available from water property table
S : obtainedfrom Curvesof form
VS : Full scale ship speed

Total Hull Resistance (cont)

Relation of Total Resistance Coefficient and Speed
T o ta l R e s i s ta n c e , R t ( l b )

TOTAL R ESISTAN C E C U R VE
YARD PATROL CRAFT

20000

15000

10000

5000

0
0

10

12

14

16

Ship Speed, Vs (knots)

RT CT VS
VS

n from 2 at low speed

ot 5 at high speed

EHP RTVS CT VS VS
2

VS

n from 3 at low speed

to 6 at high speed

7.6 Components of Total Resistance

Total Resistance

RT RV RW RA
RV : Viscous Resistance
R W : Wave Making Resistance
RA : Air Resistance
Viscous Resistance
- Resistance due to the viscous stresses that the fluid exerts
on the hull.
( i.e. due to friction of the water against the surface of the ship)
- Water viscosity, ships velocity, wetted surface area and roughness
of the ship generally affect the viscous resistance.
Characterized by the non-dimensional Reynolds Number, Rn

Components of Total Resistance

Wave-Making Resistance
- Resistance caused by waves generated by the motion of the ship
- Wave-making resistance is affected by beam to length ratio,
displacement, shape of hull, (ship length & speed)
Characterized by the non-dimensional Froude Number, Fn
Air Resistance
- Resistance caused by the flow of air over the ship with no
wind present
- Air resistance is affected by projected area, shape of the ship
above the water line, wind velocity and direction
- Typically 4 ~ 8 % of the total resistance

Components of Total Hull Resistance

Total Resistance and Relative Magnitude of Components

Air Resistance
Hollow
Hump

Wave-making

Viscous
Speed (kts)
- Low speed : Viscous R dominates
- Higher speed : Wave-making R dominates
- Hump (Hollow) : location is function of ship length and speed.

Coefficient of Viscous Resistance

Viscous Flow around a ship

Real ship : Turbulent flow exists from near the bow.

Model ship : Studs or sand strips are attached at the bow
to create the turbulent flow.

Coefficient of Viscous Resistance (cont)

Coefficients of Viscous Resistance
- Non-dimensional quantity of viscous resistance
- It consists of tangential and normal components.

CV Ctangential Cnormal CF KC F
flow

bow

ship

stern

Tangential Component : CF
- Tangential stress is parallel to ships hull and causes
a net force opposing the motion ; Skin Friction
- It is assumed

CF can be obtained from data of flat plates.

Coefficient of Viscous Resistance (cont)

Tangential Componentof CV CF
0.075
CF
(log10 Rn 2)2
Rn

Semi-empirical
equation

LVS

Rn Reynolds Number
L L pp (ft)
VS Ship Speed(ft/s)

Kinematic Viscosity(ft2 /s)

1.2260 10-5 ft 2 /s for freshwater
1.2791 10-5 ft 2 /s for salt water

Coefficient of Viscous Resistance

(cont)

Tangential Component (contd)

- Relation between viscous flow and Reynolds number
Laminar flow : In laminar flow, the fluid flows in layers
in an orderly fashion. The layers do not mix transversely
but slide over one another.
Turbulent flow : In turbulent flow, the flow is chaotic and
mixed transversely.

Flow over
flat plate

Laminar Flow

R n about 5 10

Turbulent Flow
5

R n about 5 10

Coefficient of Viscous Resistance

(cont)

Normal Component
- Normal component causes a pressure distribution along the
underwater hull form of ship
- A high pressure is formed in the forward direction opposing
the motion and a lower pressure is formed aft.
- Normal component generates the eddy behind the hull.
- It is affected by hull shape.
Fuller shape ship has larger normal component than slender
ship.
large eddy
Full ship
Slender ship
small eddy

Coefficient of Viscous Resistance

(cont)

Normal Component (contd)

- It is calculated by the product of Skin Friction with Form Factor.

Normal Componentof Cv K CF
CF Sk inFriction Coeff.
K Form Factor

(ft )
B( ft)

K 19
L( ft) B( ft)T ( ft) L( ft)
3

Summary of Viscous Resistance Coefficient

Reducing the Viscous Resistance Coefficient
- Method : Increasing L with constant submerged volume
1) Form Factor K Normal component KCF
Slender hull is favorable. ( Slender hull form will create
a smaller pressure difference between bow and stern.)
2) Reynolds No. Rn CF KCF

Wave-Making Resistance
Definition : refer to the previous note
Typical Wave Pattern
Stern divergent wave

Bow divergent wave

L
Transverse wave

Wave Length

Wave-Making Resistance
Transverse wave system : Waves perpendicular to wake
It travels at approximately the same speed as the ship.

At slow speed, several crests exist along the ship length

because the wave lengths are smaller than the ship length.
As the ship speeds up, the length of the transverse wave
increases.
When the transverse wave length approaches the ship length,
the wave making resistance increases very rapidly.
This is the main reason for the dramatic increase in
Total Resistance as speed increases.

Wave-Making Resistance (cont)

Transverse wave System
Vs < Hull Speed

Slow
Speed
Wave
Length

Vs Hull Speed

Hull
Speed
Wave Length

Hull Speed : speed at which the transverse wave length equals

the ship length.
(Wavemaking resistance drastically increases above hull speed)

Wave-Making Resistance (cont)

Divergent Wave System: waves that angle out
It consists of Bow and Stern Waves.
Interaction of the bow and stern waves create the Hollow or
Hump on the resistance curve.
Hump : When the bow and stern waves are in phase,
the crests are added up so that larger divergent wave systems
are generated.
Hollow : When the bow and stern waves are out of phase,
the crests match the troughs so that smaller divergent wave
systems are generated.

Wave-Making Resistance (cont)

Calculation of Wave-Making Resistance Coeff.
Wave-making resistance is influenced by:
- beam to length ratio
- displacement
- hull shape
- Froude number
The calculation of the coefficient is too complex for a simple
theoretical or empirical equation.
(Because mathematical modeling of the flow around ship
is very complex since there exists fluid-air boundary,
wave-body interaction)
Therefore model test in the towing tank and Froude expansion
are the best way to calculate the Cw of the real ship.

Wave-Making Resistance (cont)

Reducing Wave Making Resistance

1) Increasing ship length to reduce the transverse wave

- Hull speed will increase.
- Therefore increment of wave-making resistance of longer
ship will be small until the ship reaches to the hull speed.

Wave-Making Resistance (cont)

Reducing Wave Making Resistance (contd)
2) Attaching Bulbous Bow to reduce the bow divergent wave
- Bulbous bow generates the second bow waves .
- Then the waves interact with the bow wave resulting in
ideally no waves, practically smaller bow divergent waves.

- EX :
DDG 51 : 7 % reduction in fuel consumption at cruise speed
3% reduction at max speed.
design &retrofit cost : less than $30 million
life cycle fuel cost saving for all the ship : $250 mil.
Tankers & Containers : adopting the Bulbous bow
3) Stern flaps - helps with launching small boats, too!

Wave-Making Resistance (cont)

Bulbous Bow

Coefficient of Total Resistance

Coefficient of total hull resistance: the Cs added

CT C V C W C A
C F(1 K) C W C A
CA: Correlation Allowance
Correlation Allowance
It accounts for hull resistance due to surface roughness,
paint roughness, corrosion, and fouling of the hull surface.
It is only used when a full-scale ship prediction of EHP is made
from model test results.
For model, C A 0 Since model surface is smooth .
For ship, empirical formulas can be used.

Other Type of Resistances

Appendage Resistance
- Frictional resistance caused by the underwater appendages
such as rudder, propeller shaft, bilge keels and struts
- 224% of the total resistance in naval ship.
Steering Resistance
- Resistance caused by the rudder motion.
- Small in warships but troublesome in sail boats
Added Resistance
- Resistance due to sea waves which will cause the ship

motions (pitching, rolling, heaving, yawing).

Other Resistances
Increased Resistance in Shallow Water
- Resistance caused by shallow water effect
- Flow velocities under the hull increases in shallow water.
: Increment of frictional resistance due to the velocities
: Pressure drop, suction, increment of wetted surface area
Increases frictional resistance

- The waves created in shallow water take more energy from

the ship than they do in deep water for the same speed.
Increases wave making resistance

7.7 Basic Theory Behind Ship Modeling

Modeling a ship
- Not possible to measure the resistance of the prototype ship
- The ship needs to be scaled down to test in the tank but
the scaled ship (model) must behave in exactly same way
as the real ship.
- How to scale the prototype ship ?
How to make relationships between the prototype and model
data?
- Geometric and Dynamic similarity must be achieved.

prototype
ship

prototype

?
model ship

Dimension
Speed
Force

Model

Basic Theory behind Ship Modeling

Geometric Similarity
- Geometric similarity exists between model and
prototype if the ratios of all characteristic dimensions
in model and prototype are equal.
- The ratio of the ship length to the model length is typically
used to define the scale factor.

Scale Factor
LS (ft)

: Length
LM (ft)
S S (ft2 )

S M (ft2 )

: Area

S (ft3 )

M (ft3 )

: Volume

S : full scale ship

M : Model

Basic Theory behind Ship Modeling

Dynamic Similarity
- Dynamic Similarity exists between model and prototype
if the ratios of all forces in model and prototype are the
same.
- Total Resistance : Frictional Resistance+ Wave Making+Others

CV f ( Rn ),

CW f ( Fn )

RnS RnM ,

FnS FnM

LSVS LMVM

,
vS
vM
vM LS
VM VS
,
vS LM

VS
VM

gLS
gLM
VM VS

LM
LS

Basic Theory behind Ship Modeling

Dynamic Similarity (contd)
- Both Geometric and Dynamic similarity cannot be achieved
at same time in the model test because making both Rn and
Fn the same for the model and ship is not physically possible.

Example
Ship Length=100ft, Ship Speed=10kts, Model Length=10ft
Model speed to satisfy both geometric and dynamic similitude?
VM VS

LM
LS

10ft
10(kts)
100ft
3.16(kts)

vM LS
VM VS
vS LM
100 ft
10(kts)
(assumevM vS )
10 ft
100(kts)

Basic Theory behind Ship Modeling

Dynamic Similarity (contd)
- Choice ?
Make Fn the same for the model.
Have Rn different
Incomplete dynamic similarity
- However partial dynamic similarity can be achieved by
towing the model at the corresponding speed
- Due to the partial dynamic similarity, the following
relations in forces are established.

CWM CWS

CVM CVS

Basic Theory behind Ship Modeling

Corresponding Speeds
VS
VM

gLS
gLM

FnS FnM ,

VS (ft/s) VM (ft/s)

LS(ft)
LM (ft)
- Example :
Ship length = 200 ft, Model length : 10 ft
Ship speed = 20 kts, Model speed towed ?

VM VS
VS

LM
1
VS
LS
LS / LM
1

1
20kts
4.47 kts

20

1kts=1.688 ft/s

Chap 7.7 Basic Theory Behind Ship Modeling

Modeling Summary

CT CV CW C A CF (1 K ) CW C A
1) CTM CFM (1 K M ) CWM C AM
Froude
Expansion

Measured in tank

CWM CTM CFM (1 K ) C AM

2) CTS C FS (1 K S ) CWS C AS
RTS VS
3)

EHP ( hp )

550

( RTS CTS * 0.5 S S SVs 2 )

CWS CWM ( FnS FnM , VS / gLS VM / gLM )

CFM , CFS

(calculated)

KS KM

(due to scale factor . Calculated or given )

C AM 0

( Model is smooth)

C AS 0

(given, or calculated)

7.9 The Screw Propeller

7.9 Screw Propeller

Diameter
Hub
Blade Tip
Blade Root

Pitch Distance
Pitch Angle
Fixed Pitch

Variable Pitch
Controllable Pitch
(Constant Speed)

7.9 Screw Propeller

Variable Pitch (the standard prop):
- The pitch varies at the radial distance from the hub.
- Improves the propeller efficiency.
- Blade may be designed to be adjusted to a different
pitch setting when propeller is stopped.
Controllable Pitch :
- The position of the blades relative to the hub can be
changed while the propeller is rotating.
- This will improve the control and ship handling.
- Expensive and difficult to design and build

Right and Left Hand Props

Left Hand

Right Hand

Suction Face
Leading Edge

Trailing Edge
Pressure Face

Propeller Walk
Due to a difference in the pressure at
the top and bottom of the prop (due to
boundary layer), the lower part of the
prop works harder.
This leads to a slight turning moment.
Right hand props cause turns to port
when moving ahead.

Prop Walk Solutions

Twin Screws
Counter rotating propellers (one shaft)
Tunnels/shrouds (nozzle)

Shrouded (nozzle) prop

7.9 Skewed Screw Propeller

Highly Skewed Propeller
Advantages
- Reduce interaction between
propeller and rudder wake.
- Reduce vibration and noise

Disadvantages
- Expensive
- Less efficient operating in
reverse

DDG51

7.9. Propeller Theory

Propeller Theory
Speed of Advance
P

Vwater 0
Wake Region

VS
Q

VW

Vwater VS

The ship drags the surrounding water so that the wake to

follow the ship with a wake speed (Vw) is generated in the
stern.
The flow speed at the propeller is,

VA VS VW

Speed of Advance

7.9 Propeller Theory

Propeller Efficiency
propeller

1 1 Ct

T
CT
2
0.5VA Ao

propeller

THP

DHP

~70 % for well-designed prop

CT : Thrust loading coefficient

T : Propeller thrust
A o : Area of the projected propeller disc

- For a given T (Thrust),

Ao (Diameter ) ; CT

Maximum

; Prop Eff

The larger the diameter of propeller, the better the propeller efficiency

Chap 7.9.3 Propeller Cavitation

Cavitation : Definition
- The formation and subsequent collapse of vapor bubbles
on propeller blades where pressure has fallen below the

vapor pressure of water.

- Bernoullis Equation can be used to predict pressure.
- Cavitation occurs on propellers (or rudders) that are
heavily loaded, or are experiencing a high thrust loading
coefficient.

1 atm=101kpa
=14.7psi

Blade Tip Cavitation

Navy Model Propeller 5236

Flow velocities at the tip
are fastest so that
pressure drop occurs at
the tip first.
Sheet Cavitation

Large and stable region

of cavitation covering the
suction face of propeller.

Propeller Cavitation
Consequences of Cavitation

1) Low propeller efficiency (Thrust reduction)

2) Propeller erosion (mechanical erosion as bubbles
collapse, up to 180 ton/in pressure)
3) Vibration due to uneven loading
4) Cavitation noise due to impulsion by the bubble
collapse

Propeller Cavitation
Preventing Cavitation
- Remove fouling, nicks and scratch.
- Increase or decrease the engine RPM smoothly to avoid

an abrupt change in thrust.

rapid change of rpm high propeller thrust but small
change in VA larger CT cavitation &

low propeller efficiency

- Keep appropriate pitch setting for controllable pitch
propeller

- For submarines, diving to deeper depths will delay or

prevent cavitation as hydrostatic pressure increases.

Propeller Cavitation
Ventilation

- If a propeller or rudder operates too close to the water

surface, surface air or exhaust gases are drawn into the
propeller blade due to the localized low pressure around
propeller. The prop digs a hole in the water.
- The load on the propeller is reduced by the mixing of
air or exhaust gases into the water causing effects
similar to those for cavitation.
-Ventilation often occurs in ships in a very light
condition(small draft), in rough seas, or during hard
turns.

Other forms of propulsion

A one horsepower cable-drawn ferry!