Chapter 8

BIOLOGY
CONCEPTS & CONNECTIONS

Fourth Edition
Neil A. Campbell Jane B. Reece Lawrence G. Mitchell Martha R. Taylor
CHAPTER 8
The Cellular Basis of
Reproduction and Inheritance
Modules 8.1 8.3
From PowerPoint Lectures for Biology: Concepts & Connections
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
How to Make a Sea Star With and Without Sex

The life cycle of a multicellular
organism includes
development
reproduction
This sea star embryo (morula) shows one stage

in the development of a fertilized egg
The cluster of cells will continue to divide as
development proceeds
Some organisms can also reproduce asexually

This sea star is regenerating a lost arm
Regeneration results from repeated cell
divisions
CONNECTIONS BETWEEN CELL DIVISION

AND REPRODUCTION
Cell division is at the heart of the reproduction
of cells and organisms
Organisms can reproduce sexually or asexually
8.1 Like begets like, more or less

Some organisms make exact copies of
themselves, asexual reproduction
Figure 8.1A
Other organisms make similar copies of

themselves in a more complex process, sexual
reproduction
Figure 8.1B
8.2 Cells arise only from preexisting cells

All cells come from cells
Cellular reproduction is called cell division

Cell division allows an embryo to develop into an
adult
It also ensures the continuity of life from one
generation to the next
8.3 Prokaryotes reproduce by binary fission

Prokaryotic cells divide asexually
These cells possess a single chromosome, containing
genes
The chromosome is replicated
The cell then divides into two cells, a process called
binary fission
Prokaryotic chromosomes
Figure 8.3B
Binary fission of a prokaryotic cell

Plasma
membrane
Prokaryotic
chromosome
Cell wall
Duplication of chromosome
and separation of copies
Continued growth of the cell

and movement of copies
Division into
two cells
Figure 8.3A
BIOLOGY
Fourth Edition
CHAPTER 8
Modules 8.4 8.11
THE EUKARYOTIC CELL CYCLE AND

MITOSIS
8.4 The large, complex chromosomes of eukaryotes
duplicate with each cell division
A eukaryotic cell has many more genes than a
prokaryotic cell
The genes are grouped into
multiple chromosomes,
found in the nucleus
The chromosomes of this

plant cell are stained
dark purple
Figure 8.4A
Chromosomes contain a very long DNA

molecule with thousands of genes
Individual chromosomes are only visible
during cell division
They are packaged as chromatin
Before a cell starts

dividing, the
chromosomes are
duplicated
This process
produces sister
chromatids
Sister chromatids
Centromere
Figure 8.4B
When the cell

divides, the sister
chromatids separate
Chromosome
duplication
Two daughter
cells are produced
Each has a
complete and
identical set of
chromosomes
Sister
chromatids
Centromere
Chromosome
distribution
to
daughter
cells
Figure 8.4C
8.5 The cell cycle multiplies cells

The cell cycle consists of two major phases:
Interphase, where chromosomes duplicate
and cell parts
are made
The mitotic
phase, when
cell division
occurs
Figure 8.5
8.6 Cell division is a continuum of dynamic

changes
Eukaryotic cell division consists of two stages:
Mitosis
Cytokinesis
In mitosis, the duplicated chromosomes are

distributed into two daughter nuclei
After the chromosomes coil up, a mitotic spindle
moves them to the middle of the cell
INTERPHASE
PROPHASE
Centrosomes
(with centriole pairs)
Early mitotic
spindle
Centrosome
Chromatin
Nucleolus Nuclear
envelope
Plasma
membrane
Chromosome,
consisting of two
sister chromatids
Figure 8.6
Fragments
of nuclear
envelope
Centrosome
Kinetochore
Spindle
microtubules
The sister chromatids then separate and move

to opposite poles of the cell
The process of cytokinesis divides the cell into
two genetically identical cells
METAPHASE
ANAPHASE
Cleavage
furrow
Metaphase
plate
Spindle
TELOPHASE AND CYTOKINESIS
Daughter
chromosomes
Figure 8.6 (continued)

Nuclear
envelope
forming
Nucleolus
forming
8.7 Cytokinesis differs for plant and animal cells

In animals, cytokinesis
occurs by cleavage
Cleavage
furrow
This process pinches

the cell apart
Cleavage
furrow
Figure 8.7A
Contracting ring of
microfilaments
Daughter cells
In plants, a
membranous cell
plate splits the cell in
two
Cell plate
forming
Wall of
parent cell
Cell wall
Figure 8.7B
Vesicles containing
cell wall material
Daughter
nucleus
New cell wall
Cell plate
Daughter
cells
8.8 Anchorage, cell density, and chemical growth

factors affect cell division
Most animal cells divide only when stimulated,
and others not at all
In laboratory cultures, most normal cells divide
only when attached to a surface
They are anchorage dependent
Cells continue dividing until they touch one

another
This is called density-dependent inhibition
Cells anchor to dish surface and
divide.
When cells have formed a

complete single layer, they stop
dividing (density-dependent
inhibition).
If some cells are scraped away,

the remaining cells divide to fill
the dish with a single layer and
then stop (density-dependent
inhibition).
Figure 8.8A
Growth factors are proteins secreted by cells

that stimulate other cells to divide
After forming a single layer, cells

have stopped dividing.
Providing an additional supply of

growth factors stimulates further
cell division.
Figure 8.8B
8.9 Growth factors signal the cell cycle control

system
Proteins within the cell control the cell cycle
Signals affecting critical checkpoints determine
whether the cell will go through a complete cycle
and divide
G1 checkpoint
Control
system
M checkpoint
G2 checkpoint
Figure 8.9A
The binding of growth factors to specific

receptors on the plasma membrane is usually
necessary for cell division
Growth factor
Plasma membrane
Receptor
protein
Relay
proteins
Signal
transduction
pathway
Figure 8.8B
G1 checkpoint
Cell cycle
control
system
8.10 Connection: Growing out of control, cancer

cells produce malignant tumors
Cancer cells have abnormal cell cycles
They divide excessively and can form abnormal
masses called tumors
Radiation and chemotherapy are effective as

cancer treatments because they interfere with
cell division
Malignant tumors can invade other tissues and

may kill the organism
Lymph
vessels
Tumor
Glandular
tissue
Metastasis
1
A tumor grows
from a single
cancer cell.
Cancer cells invade

neighboring tissue.
Figure 8.10
Cancer cells spread

through lymph and
blood vessels to other
parts of the body.
8.11 Review of the functions of mitosis: Growth,

cell replacement, and asexual reproduction
When the cell cycle operates normally, mitotic
cell division functions in:
Growth (seen here in an onion root)
Figure 8.11A
Cell replacement (seen here in skin)
Dead
cells
Epidermis,
the outer
layer of the
skin
Dividing
cells
Dermis
Figure 8.11B
Asexual reproduction (seen here in a hydra)
Figure 8.11C
BIOLOGY
Fourth Edition
CHAPTER 8
Modules 8.12 8.18
MEIOSIS AND CROSSING OVER

8.12 Chromosomes are matched in homologous
pairs
Somatic cells of each

species contain a
specific number of
chromosomes
Chromosomes
Centromere
Human cells have

46, making up 23
pairs of homologous
chromosomes
Sister chromatids
Figure 8.12
8.13 Gametes have a single set of chromosomes

Cells with two sets of chromosomes are said to
be diploid
Gametes are haploid, with only one set of
chromosomes
At fertilization, a sperm fuses with an egg,

forming a diploid zygote
Repeated mitotic divisions lead to the
development of a mature adult
The adult makes haploid gametes by meiosis
All of these processes make up the sexual life
cycle of organisms
The human
life cycle
Haploid gametes (n = 23)
Egg cell
Sperm cell
MEIOSIS
FERTILIZATION
Diploid
zygote
(2n = 46)
Multicellular
diploid adults
(2n = 46)
Mitosis and
development
Figure 8.13
8.14 Meiosis reduces the chromosome number

from diploid to haploid
Meiosis, like mitosis, is preceded by
chromosome duplication
However, in meiosis the cell divides twice to
form four daughter cells
In the first division, meiosis I, homologous

chromosomes are paired
While they are paired, they cross over and
exchange genetic information
The homologous pairs are then separated, and
two daughter cells are produced
MEIOSIS I: Homologous chromosomes separate

INTERPHASE
Centrosomes
(with
centriole
pairs)
Nuclear
envelope
PROPHASE I
METAPHASE I
Microtubules
attached to
Spindle kinetochore
Sites of crossing over
Chromatin
Sister
chromatids
Tetrad
Figure 8.14, part 1

Metaphase
plate
Centromere
(with kinetochore)
ANAPHASE I
Sister chromatids
remain attached
Homologous
chromosomes separate
Meiosis II is essentially the same as mitosis

The sister chromatids of each chromosome
separate
The result is four haploid daughter cells
MEIOSIS II: Sister chromatids separate

TELOPHASE I
AND CYTOKINESIS
PROPHASE II
METAPHASE II
ANAPHASE II
TELOPHASE II
AND CYTOKINESIS
Cleavage
furrow
Sister
chromatids
separate
Figure 8.14, part 2

Haploid
daughter cells
forming
8.15 Review: A comparison of mitosis and meiosis

For both processes, chromosomes replicate only
once, during interphase
MITOSIS
MEIOSIS
PARENT CELL
(before chromosome replication)
Site of
crossing over
PROPHASE I
Tetrad formed
by synapsis of
homologous
chromosomes
PROPHASE
Duplicated
chromosome
(two sister chromatids)
METAPHASE
ANAPHASE
TELOPHASE
2n
Chromosome
replication
Chromosome
replication
2n = 4
Chromosomes
align at the
metaphase plate
Tetrads
align at the
metaphase plate
Sister chromatids
separate during
anaphase
Homologous
chromosomes
separate
during
anaphase I;
sister
chromatids
remain together
2n
Daughter cells
of mitosis
Figure 8.15
MEIOSIS I
METAPHASE I
ANAPHASE I
TELOPHASE I
Haploid
n=2
Daughter
cells of
meiosis I
No further
MEIOSIS II
chromosomal
replication; sister
chromatids
separate during
anaphase II
n
n
n
n
Daughter cells of meiosis II
8.16 Independent orientation of chromosomes in

meiosis and random fertilization lead to
varied offspring
Each chromosome of a homologous pair comes

from a different parent
Each chromosome thus differs at many points
from the other member of the pair
The large number of possible arrangements of

chromosome pairs at metaphase I of meiosis
leads to many different combinations of
chromosomes in gametes
Random fertilization also increases variation in
offspring
POSSIBILITY 1
POSSIBILITY 2
Two equally probable

arrangements of
chromosomes at
metaphase I
Metaphase II
Gametes
Combination 1
Combination 2
Figure 8.16
Combination 3
Combination 4
8.17 Homologous chromosomes carry different

versions of genes
The differences between homologous
chromosomes are based on the fact that they
can carry different versions of a gene at
corresponding loci
Coat-color genes
Eye-color genes
Brown
Black
White
Pink
Tetrad in parent cell

(homologous pair of
duplicated chromosomes)
Figure 8.17A, B
Chromosomes of
the four gametes
8.18 Crossing over further increases genetic

variability
Crossing over is the exchange of corresponding
segments between two homologous
chromosomes
Genetic recombination results from crossing
over during prophase I of meiosis
This increases variation further
Tetrad
Chaisma
Centromere
Figure 8.18A
Coat-color
genes
How crossing over

leads to genetic
recombination
Eye-color
genes
Tetrad
(homologous pair of
chromosomes in synapsis)
Breakage of homologous chromatids
Joining of homologous chromatids
Chiasma
Separation of homologous
chromosomes at anaphase I
Separation of chromatids at
anaphase II and completion of meiosis
Parental type of chromosome
Recombinant chromosome
Recombinant chromosome
Parental type of chromosome
Figure 8.18B
Gametes of four genetic types
BIOLOGY
Fourth Edition
CHAPTER 8
Modules 8.19 8.23
ALTERATIONS OF CHROMOSOME NUMBER

AND STRUCTURE
8.19 A karyotype is a photographic inventory of an
individuals chromosomes
To study human chromosomes
microscopically, researchers stain and display
them as a karyotype
A karyotype usually shows 22 pairs of
autosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes
Preparation of a karyotype
Blood
culture
Packed red
And white
blood cells
Hypotonic solution
Stain
White
Blood
cells
Centrifuge
2
1
Fixative
Fluid
Centromere
Sister
chromatids
Pair of homologous
chromosomes
4
Figure 8.19
8.20 Connection: An extra copy of chromosome 21

causes Down syndrome
This karyotype shows three number 21
chromosomes
An extra copy of chromosome 21 causes Down
syndrome
Figure 8.20A, B
The chance of having a Down syndrome child

goes up with maternal age
Figure 8.20C
8.21 Accidents during meiosis can alter

chromosome number
Abnormal
chromosome count
is a result of
nondisjunction
Either
homologous
pairs fail to
separate
during
meiosis I
Nondisjunction
in meiosis I
Normal
meiosis II
Gametes
n+1
n+1
n1
n1
Number of chromosomes
Figure 8.21A
Or sister chromatids fail to separate during

meiosis II
Normal
meiosis I
Nondisjunction
in meiosis II
Gametes
n1
n+1
Number of chromosomes
n
Figure 8.21B
Fertilization after nondisjunction in the mother

results in a zygote with an extra chromosome
Egg
cell
n+1
Zygote
2n + 1
Sperm
cell
n (normal)
Figure 8.21C
8.22 Connection: Abnormal numbers of sex

chromosomes do not usually affect survival
Nondisjunction can also produce gametes with
extra or missing sex chromosomes
Unusual numbers of sex chromosomes upset the
genetic balance less than an unusual number of
autosomes
Table 8.22
A man with Klinefelter syndrome has an extra

X chromosome
Poor beard
growth
Breast
development
Underdeveloped
testes
Figure 8.22A
A woman with Turner syndrome lacks an X

chromosome
Characteristic
facial
features
Web of
skin
Constriction
of aorta
Poor
breast
development
Underdeveloped
ovaries
Figure 8.22B
8.23 Connection: Alterations of chromosome

structure can cause birth defects and cancer
Chromosome breakage can lead to
rearrangements that can produce genetic
disorders or cancer
Four types of rearrangement are deletion,
duplication, inversion, and translocation
Deletion
Duplication
Homologous
chromosomes
Inversion
Reciprocal
translocation
Nonhomologous
chromosomes
Figure 8.23A, B
Chromosomal changes in a somatic cell can

cause cancer
A chromosomal translocation in the bone
marrow is associated with chronic myelogenous
leukemia
Chromosome 9
Chromosome 22
Reciprocal
translocation
Philadelphia chromosome
Activated cancer-causing gene
Figure 8.23C
BIOLOGY
Fourth Edition
CHAPTER 8
Extra Photographs

Sea urchin development
Figure 8.0x
E. coli dividing
Figure 8.3x
Cell cycle collage
Figure 8.5x
Mitosis collage, light micrographs
Figure 8.6x1
Mitotic spindle
Figure 8.6x2
Fibroblast growth
Figure 8.8x
Breast cancer cell
Figure 8.10x1
Mammograms
Figure 8.10x2
Human female bands
Figure 8.19x1
Human female karyotype
Figure 8.19x2
Human male bands
Figure 8.19x3
Human male karyotype
Figure 8.19x4
Down syndrome karyotype
Figure 8.20Ax
Klinefelters karyotype
Figure 8.22Ax
XYY karyotype
Figure 8.22x
Translocation
Figure 8.23Bx

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BIOLOGY

CONCEPTS & CONNECTIONS

Neil A. Campbell Jane B. Reece Lawrence G. Mitchell Martha R. Taylor

How to Make a Sea Star With and Without Sex

This sea star embryo (morula) shows one stage

Some organisms can also reproduce asexually

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

CONNECTIONS BETWEEN CELL DIVISION

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

8.1 Like begets like, more or less

Other organisms make similar copies of

8.2 Cells arise only from preexisting cells

Cellular reproduction is called cell division

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

8.3 Prokaryotes reproduce by binary fission

Binary fission of a prokaryotic cell

Continued growth of the cell

Neil A. Campbell Jane B. Reece Lawrence G. Mitchell Martha R. Taylor

THE EUKARYOTIC CELL CYCLE AND

The chromosomes of this

Chromosomes contain a very long DNA

They are packaged as chromatin

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Before a cell starts

When the cell

8.5 The cell cycle multiplies cells

8.6 Cell division is a continuum of dynamic

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

In mitosis, the duplicated chromosomes are

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

The sister chromatids then separate and move

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

TELOPHASE AND CYTOKINESIS

Figure 8.6 (continued)

8.7 Cytokinesis differs for plant and animal cells

This process pinches

New cell wall

8.8 Anchorage, cell density, and chemical growth

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Cells continue dividing until they touch one

When cells have formed a

If some cells are scraped away,

Growth factors are proteins secreted by cells

After forming a single layer, cells

Providing an additional supply of

8.9 Growth factors signal the cell cycle control

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

The binding of growth factors to specific

8.10 Connection: Growing out of control, cancer

Radiation and chemotherapy are effective as

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Malignant tumors can invade other tissues and

Cancer cells invade

Cancer cells spread

8.11 Review of the functions of mitosis: Growth,

Cell replacement (seen here in skin)

Asexual reproduction (seen here in a hydra)

Neil A. Campbell Jane B. Reece Lawrence G. Mitchell Martha R. Taylor

MEIOSIS AND CROSSING OVER

Somatic cells of each

Human cells have

8.13 Gametes have a single set of chromosomes