Business

Research Methods
William G. Zikmund

Chapter 1:
The Role of Business Research
1

Business Research Defined

Business research is defined as the
systematic and objective process of
generating information for aid in
making business decisions.

Business Research
Research information is neither intuitive nor
haphazardly gathered.
Literally, research (re-search) -search
again
Business research must be objective
Detached and impersonal rather than biased
It facilitates the managerial decision process
for all aspects of a business.
3

Information
Reduces

I dont know
if we
should
offer on-site
child care?

Uncertainty

It aint the things we dont know

that gets us in trouble. Its the
things we know that aint so.
Artemus Ward

Business Research Types

Basic research
Applied research

Basic Research
Attempts to expand the limits of knowledge.
Not directly involved in the solution to a
pragmatic problem.

Basic Research Example

Is executive success correlated with high
need for achievement?
Are members of highly cohesive work
groups more satisfied than members of less
cohesive work groups?
Do consumers experience cognitive
dissonance in low-involvement situations?

"The secret of success is to know something

nobody else knows. "
Aristotle Onassis

Applied Research
Conducted when a decision must be made about
a specific real-life problem

Applied Research Examples

Should McDonalds add Italian pasta dinners to its
menu?
Business research told McDonalds it should not?
Should Procter & Gamble add a high-priced
home teeth bleaching kit to its product line?
Research showed Crest Whitestrips would sell
9
well at a retail price of $44

Scientific Method
The analysis and interpretation of empirical
evidence (facts from observation or
experimentation) to confirm or disprove
prior conceptions.

10

The Decision-making Process

Associated with the Development
and Implementation of a Strategy
Identifying problems and opportunities
Diagnosis and assessment
Selecting and implementing a course of
action
Evaluating the course of action
11

Evaluation Research
Evaluation research is the formal, objective
measurement and appraisal of the extent to
which a given activity, project, or program
has achieved its objectives.

12

Performance-monitoring
Research
Research that regularly provides feedback
for evaluation and control
Indicates things are or are not going as
planned
Research may be required to explain why
something went wrong

13

Total Quality Management (TQM)

A business philosophy that embodies the belief
that the management process must focus on
integrating customer-driven quality throughout the
organization.

TQM
Stresses continuous improvement of product
quality and service.
Managers improve durability and enhance features
as the product ages.
Managers strive to improve delivery and other
14
services to keep their companies competitive

Determining When to Conduct

Business Research

Time constraints
Availability of data
Nature of the decision
Benefits versus costs

15

Determining When to Conduct

Business Research

Availability of Data
Benefits
Time Constraints
Nature of the Decision vs. Costs
Is sufficient time
available before
a managerial
decision
must be made?

No

Yes

Is the information already

on hand
inadequate
for making
the decision?

No

Yes

Is the decision
Yes
of considerable
strategic
or tactical
importance?

Does the value

of the research Yes
information
exceed the cost
of conducting
research?

No

Conducting
Business
Research

No

Do Not Conduct Business Research

16

Value versus Costs

Potential Value of a Business Research
Effort Should Exceed Its Estimated Costs

17

Value Should Exceed

Estimated Costs
Costs
Value
Decreased certainty
Increased likelihood
of a correct decision
Improved business
performance and
resulting higher
profits

Research
expenditures
Delay of business
decision and
possible disclosure
of information to
rivals
Possible erroneous
research results

18

Major Topics for Research in

Business
General Business Conditions and Corporate
Research
Financial and Accounting Research
Management and Organizational Behavior
Research
Sales and Marketing Research
Information Systems Research
Corporate Responsibility Research
19

Cross-functional Teams
Cross-functional teams are composed of
individuals from various organizational
departments such as engineering,
production, finance, and marketing who
share a common purpose.

20

Business Research in the 21st

Century
Increased globalization
Growth of the Internet and other
information technologies

21

Global Research
Business Research is increasingly global
Market knowledge is essential
A.C. Nielsen - more that 67% international
business

22

Global Business Research

General information about country economic conditions and political climate
Cultural and consumer factors
Market and competitive conditions demand estimation

23

The Internet
Is Transforming Society
Time is collapsing.
Distance is no longer an obstacle.
Crossing oceans is only a mouse click
away.
People are connected 24 hours a day, seven
days a week.
"Instantaneous" has a new meaning.
24

Internet Research
Seeking facts and figures about an issue
Surveys on Web sites

25

Business
Research Methods
William G. Zikmund

Chapter 4:
The Business Research Process
26

Information
Reduces uncertainty
Helps focus decision making

27

Types Of Research
Exploratory
Descriptive
Causal

28

Uncertainty Influences
The Type Of Research
CAUSAL OR
DESCRIPTIVE

COMPLETELY
CERTAIN

ABSOLUTE
AMBIGUITY

EXPLORATORY

29

Degree of Problem Definition

Exploratory Research
(Unaware of Problem)
Our sales are declining and
we dont know why.
Would people be interested
in our new product idea?

Descriptive Research
(Aware of Problem)

Causal Research
(Problem Clearly Defined)

What kind of people are buying Will buyers purchase more of

our product? Who buys our
our products in a new package?
competitors product?
Which of two advertising
What features do buyers prefer campaigns is more effective?
in our product?

30

Exploratory Research
Secondary data
Experience survey
Pilot studies

31

Exploratory Research
Initial research conducted to clarify and
define the nature of a problem
Does not provide conclusive evidence
Subsequent research expected

32

Descriptive Research
Describes characteristics of a population or
phenomenon
Some understanding of the nature of the
problem

33

I keep six honest serving men, (they taught

me all I knew), their names are
what, and why, and when, and how,
and where and who.
--Rudyard Kipling

34

Descriptive Research Example

Weight Watchers average customer

Woman about 40 years old
Household income of about $50,000
At least some college education
Trying to juggle children and a job

35

Descriptive Research Example

Mens fragrance market

1/3 size of womens fragrance market
But growing at a faster pace
Women buy 80 % of mens fragrances

36

Causal Research
Conducted to identify cause and effect
relationships

37

Identifying Causality
A causal relationship is impossible to prove.
Evidence of causality:
1. The appropriate causal order of events
2. Concomitant variation--two phenomena
vary together
3. An absence of alternative plausible
explanations
38

Stages of the Research Process

Problem Discovery
and Definition

Research
Design

Discovery and
Definition

and so on
Conclusions and
Report

Sampling
Data Processing
and Analysis
Data
Gathering
39

Research Stages
Cyclical process - conclusions generate new
ideas
Stages can overlap chronologically
Stages are functionally interrelated
Forward linkages
Backward linkages

40

Problem
discovery

Problem Discovery
and Definition

Sampling

Selection of
exploratory research
technique

Secondary
(historical)
data

Experience
survey

Probability

Pilot
study

Case
study

Data
Gathering
Data
Processing
and
Analysis

Problem definition
(statement of
research objectives)

Experiment
Laboratory

Conclusions
and Report

Survey
Field

Interview

Nonprobability

Collection of
data
(fieldwork)
Editing and
coding
data
Data
processing

Selection of
basic research
method

Research Design

Selection of
exploratory research
technique

Questionnaire

Observation

Secondary
Data Study

Interpretation
of
findings

Report

41

The Business Research Process

Problem Discovery

Selection of
Sample Design

Exploratory
Research

Collection of the
Data

Selection of the
Basic Research
Method
42

The Research Process (cont.)

Editing and Coding

Report

Data Processing

Interpretation of the
Findings
43

Stages In The Research Process

Problem Discovery and Problem Definition

Research Design
Sampling
Data Gathering
Data Processing and Analysis
Conclusions And Report
44

Problem Discovery And

Definition

First step
Problem, opportunity, or monitor operations
Discovery before definition
Problem means management problem

45

The formulation of the problem

is often more essential than its
solution
Albert Einstein

46

State the research

questions and research
objectives

47

Hypothesis
A statement
that can be refuted
by empirical data

48

If you do not know where you are going,

any road will take you there.

49

Secondary
(historical)
Data

Experience
Survey

Pilot
Study

Case
Study

Exploratory
Research

50

Exploratory Research Techniques

Two Examples
Secondary data (historical data)
Previously collected
Census of population
Literature survey

Pilot study
A number of diverse techniques

51

Focus Group Interview

52

Research Design
Master plan
Framework for action
Specifies methods and procedures

53

Basic Research Methods

Surveys
Experiments
Secondary data
Observation

54

Selecting a Sample
Sample: subset
of a larger population.

SAMPLE

POPULATION

55

Sampling
Who is to be sampled?
How large a sample?
How will sample units be selected?

56

Data Gathering Stage

57

Data Processing and Analysis

58

Conclusions And Report Writing

Effective communication of the research
findings

59

Research Proposal
A written statement of the research design
that includes a statement explaining the
purpose of the study.
Detailed outline of procedures associated
with a particular methodology

60

Research Program Strategy

Defining Problem Results in
Clear Cut Research Objectives
Symptom Detection
Analysis of
the Situation

Problem Definition
Statement of
Research Objectives

Exploratory
Research
(Optional)

61

Business
Research Methods
William G. Zikmund

Chapter 6:
Problem Definition and the
Research Proposal

62

Problem
discovery

Problem Discovery
and Definition

Sampling

Selection of
exploratory research
technique

Secondary
(historical)
data

Experience
survey

Probability

Pilot
study

Case
study

Data
Gathering
Data
Processing
and
Analysis

Problem definition
(statement of
research objectives)

Experiment
Laboratory

Conclusions
and Report

Survey
Field

Interview

Nonprobability

Collection of
data
(fieldwork)
Editing and
coding
data
Data
processing

Selection of
basic research
method

Research Design

Selection of
exploratory research
technique

Questionnaire

Observation

Secondary
Data Study

Interpretation
of
findings

Report

63

Uncertainty Influences the Type

of Research

CAUSAL OR
DESCRIPTIVE

COMPLETELY
CERTAIN

ABSOLUTE
AMBIGUITY

EXPLORATORY

64

Problem Discovery and Definition

First step
Problem, opportunity, or monitor operations
Discovery before definition
Problem means management problem

65

The formulation of the problem

is often more essential than its
solution.
Albert Einstein

66

Problem Definition
The indication of a specific business
decision area that will be clarified by
answering some research questions.

67

Defining Problem Results in

Clear Cut Research Objectives
Symptom Detection

Analysis of
the Situation

Problem Definition

Exploratory
Research
(Optional)

Statement of
Research Objectives
68

The Process of
Problem Definition
Ascertain the
decision makers
objectives

Determine unit of
analysis

Understand
background of the
problem

Determine relevant
variables

Isolate/identify the
problem, not the
symptoms

State research
questions and
objectives
69

Ascertain the Decision Makers

Objectives
Decision makers objectives
Managerial goals expressed in measurable
terms.

70

The Iceberg Principle

The principle indicating that the dangerous
part of many business problems is neither
visible to nor understood by managers.

71

Understand the Background of

the Problem
Exercising judgment
Situation analysis - The informal gathering
of background information to familiarize
researchers or managers with the decision
area.

72

Isolate and Identify the Problems,

Not the Symptoms
Symptoms can be confusing

73

Symptoms Can Be Confusing

Twenty-year-old neighborhood swimming
association:
Membership has been declining for years.
New water park -residents prefer the
expensive water park????
Demographic changes: Children have
grown up
74

Organization

Twentyyear-old
neighborh
ood
swimming
associatio
n in a
major city.

Symptoms

Membership
has been
declining for
years. New
water park
with wave
pool and
water slides
moved into
town a few
years ago.

Problem Definition
Based on Symptom

Neighborhood
residents
prefer the
expensive
water park
and have
negative
image of
swimming
pool.

True Problem

Demographic
changes:
Children in
this 20-yearold
neighborhoo
d have grown
up. Older
residents no
longer swim
anywhere.
75

What Language Is Written on

This Stone Found by
Archaeologists?
TOTI
EMUL
ESTO

76

The Language Is English: To Tie

Mules To

TOTI
EMUL
ESTO

77

Determine the Unit of Analysis

Individuals, households, organizations, etc.
In many studies, the family rather than the
individual is the appropriate unit of
analysis.

78

Determine the Relevant Variable

Anything that may assume different
numerical values

79

Types of Variables

Categorical
Continuous
Dependent
Independent

80

Hypothesis
An unproven proposition
A possible solution to a problem
Guess

81

State the research questions and

research objectives

82

If you do not know where you are going,

any road will take you there.

83

Broad
research
objectives

Statement of
business
problem

Exploratory
research
(optional)

Specific
Objective 1

Specific
Objective 2

Specific
Objective 3

Research
Design

Results
84

The Process of
Problem Definition
Ascertain the
decision makers
objectives

Determine unit of
analysis

Understand
background of the
problem

Determine relevant
variables

Isolate/identify the
problem, not the
symptoms

State research
questions and
objectives
85

Research Proposal
A written statement of the research design
that includes a statement explaining the
purpose of the study
Detailed outline of procedures associated
with a particular methodology

86

Basic Questions Problem Definition

What is the purpose of the study?

How much is already known?
Is additional background information necessary?
What is to be measured? How?
Can the data be made available?
Should research be conducted?
Can a hypothesis be formulated?
87

Basic Questions Basic Research Design

What types of questions need to be
answered?
Are descriptive or causal findings required?
What is the source of the data?

88

Basic Questions Basic Research Design

Can objective answers be obtained by
asking people?
How quickly is the information needed?
How should survey questions be worded?
How should experimental manipulations be
made?

89

Basic Questions Selection of Sample

Who or what is the source of the data?

Can the target population be identified?
Is a sample necessary?
How accurate must the sample be?
Is a probability sample necessary?
Is a national sample necessary?
How large a sample is necessary?
How will the sample be selected?
90

Basic Questions Data Gathering

Who will gather the data?

How long will data gathering take?
How much supervision is needed?
What operational procedures need to be
followed?

91

Basic Questions Data Analysis

Will standardized editing and coding
procedures be used?
How will the data be categorized?
What statistical software will be used?
What is the nature of the data?
What questions need to be answered?
How many variables are to be investigated
simultaneously?
Performance criteria for evaluation?

92

Basic Questions Type of Report

Who will read the report?
Are managerial recommendations
requested?
How many presentations are required?
What will be the format of the written
report?

93

Basic Questions Overall Evaluation

How much will the study cost?

Is the time frame acceptable?
Is outside help needed?
Will this research design attain the stated
research objectives?
When should the research be scheduled to
begin?
94

Anticipating Outcomes
Dummy tables
Representations of the actual tables that will
be in the findings section of the final report;
used to gain a better understanding of what
the actual outcomes of the research will be.

95

Business
Research Methods
William G. Zikmund

Chapter 7:
Exploratory Research and Qualitative
Analysis

96

Qualitative versus Quantitative

Research
Purpose
Exploratory versus descriptive and conclusive

Small versus large samples

Broad range of questioning versus
structured questions
Subjective interpretation versus statistical
analysis
97

Defining Problem Results in

Clear Cut Research Objectives
Symptom Detection

Analysis of
the Situation

Problem Definition

Exploratory
Research
(Optional)

Statement of
Research Objectives
98

Exploratory research
Secondary data
Experience survey
Pilot studies

99

Exploratory Research
Initial research conducted to clarify and
define the nature of a problem
Does not provide conclusive evidence
Subsequent research expected

100

What is Exploratory Research?

QUANTITATIVE
DATA

QUALITATIVE
DATA

101

Why Conduct Exploratory

Research?
Diagnose a situation
Screening of alternatives
Discover new ideas

102

Concept Testing
Exploratory research procedure that tests
some sort of stimulus as a proxy for an idea
about a new, revised, or repositioned
product

103

Categories of Exploratory
Research

Experience surveys
Secondary data analysis
Case studies
Pilot studies

104

Experience Surveys
Ask knowledgeable individuals about a
particular research problem
most are quite willing

105

If you wish to know the road up the

mountain, you must ask the man who
goes back and forth on it.
- Zenrinkusi

106

Secondary Data Analysis

Data collected for a purpose other than the
project at hand
Economical
Quick source for background information

107

Case Study Method

Intensely investigates one or a few
situations similar to the problem
Investigate in depth
Careful study
May require cooperation

108

Pilot Study
A collective term
Any small scale exploratory study that uses
sampling
But does not apply rigorous standards

109

Pilot Studies
Focus Group
Interviews
Projective Techniques
In-Depth Interviews

110

Projective Techniques

Word association tests

Sentence completion method
Third-person technique
Role playing
T.A.T.
Picture frustration version of T.A.T.
111

A man is least himself when he talks

in his own person; when given a mask
he will tell the truth.
--Oscar Wilde

112

Word Association
Subject is presented with a list of words
Asked to respond with first word that comes
to mind

113

Word Association Examples

CHEESE

Kraft
Cheddar
Goat

GREEN

Money
Lawn
Eggs and Ham

114

Sentence Completion
People who drink beer are ______________________
A man who drinks light beer is ___________________
Imported beer is most liked by ___________________
A woman will drink beer when____________________

115

Thematic Apperception Test

T.A.T.

116

Focus Group Interviews

Unstructured
Free flowing
Group interview
Start with broad topic
and focus in on
specific issues

117

Group Composition
6 to 10 people
Relatively
homogeneous
Similar lifestyles and
experiences

118

Outline for a Focus Group

Establish a rapport
Begin with broad topic
Focus in on specific topic
Generate discussion and interaction

119

The Moderator
Develops rapport helps people relax
Interacts
Listens to what people
have to say
Everyone gets a
chance to speak

120

The Focus Group Moderator

Maintains loose control and focuses
discussion
Stimulates spontaneous responses

121

Advantages of Online
Focus Groups
Fast
Inexpensive
Bring together many participants from
wide-spread geographical areas
Respondent anonymity
Transcript automatically recorded
122

Disadvantages of Online
Focus Groups
Less group interaction
Absence of tactile stimulation
Absence of facial expression and body
language
Moderators job is different

123

Business
Research Methods
William G. Zikmund

Chapter 10:
Survey Research: Basic
Communication Methods
124

Surveys
Surveys as a respondent for information
using verbal or written questioning

125

Communicating with
Respondents
Personal interviews
Door-to-door
Shopping mall intercepts

Telephone interviews
Self-administered questionnaires

126

Personal Interviews
Good Afternoon, my name is
_________. I am with _________
survey research company. We are
conducting a survey on_________

127

Door-to-Door Personal Interview

Speed of data collection
Moderate to fast

Geographical flexibility
Limited to moderate

Respondent cooperation
Excellent

Versatility of questioning
Quite versatile
128

Door-to-Door Personal Interview

Questionnaire length
Long

Item nonresponse
Low

Possibility of respondent misunderstanding

Lowest

129

Door-to-Door Personal Interview

Degree of interviewer influence of answer
High

Supervision of interviewers
Moderate

Anonymity of respondent
Low

130

Door-to-Door Personal Interview

Ease of call back or follow-up
Difficult

Cost
Highest

Special features
Visual materials may be shown or
demonstrated; extended probing possible
131

Mall Intercept Personal Interview

Speed of data collection
Fast

Geographical flexibility
Confined, urban bias

Respondent cooperation
Moderate to low
Versatility of questioning
Extremely versatile
132

Mall Intercept Personal Interview

Speed of Data Collection
Fast

Geographical Flexibility
Confined, urban bias

Respondent Cooperation
Moderate to low
Versatility of Questioning
Extremely versatile
133

Mall Intercept Personal Interview

Questionnaire length
Moderate to long

Item nonresponse
Medium

Possibility of respondent misunderstanding

Lowest

134

Mall Intercept Personal Interview

Degree of interviewer influence of answers
Highest

Supervision of interviewers
Moderate to high

Anonymity of respondent
Low

135

Mall Intercept Personal Interview

Ease of call back or follow-up
Difficult

Cost
Moderate to high

Special features
Taste test, viewing of TV commercials
possible
136

Telephone Surveys
Speed of Data Collection
Very fast

Geographical Flexibility
High

Respondent Cooperation
Good

Versatility of Questioning
Moderate
137

Telephone Surveys
Questionnaire Length
Moderate

Item Nonresponse
Medium

Possibility of Respondent Misunderstanding

Average

Degree of Interviewer Influence of Answer

Moderate
138

Telephone Surveys
Supervision of interviewers
High, especially with central location WATS
interviewing

Anonymity of respondent
Moderate

Ease of call back or follow-up

Easy
139

Telephone Surveys
Cost
Low to moderate

Special features
Fieldwork and supervision of data collection
are simplified; quite adaptable to computer
technology
140

Telephone Surveys
Central location interviewing
Computer-assisted telephone interviewing
Computerized voice-activated interviews

141

Most Unlisted Markets

Sacramento, CA
Oakland, CA
Fresno, CA
Los Angles/Long Beach, CA

142

The Frame, November 2001 Published by Survey Sampling, 143

Inc.

Self-Administered
Questionnaires
SELF-ADMINISTERED
QUESTIONNAIRES

PAPER
QUESTIONNAIRES

MAIL

IN-PERSON
DROP-OFF

INSERTS

ELECTRONIC
QUESTIONNAIRES

FAX

E-MAIL

INTERNET
WEB SITE

KIOSK

144

Mail Surveys

145

Mail Surveys
Speed of data collection
Researcher has no control over return of
questionnaire; slow

Geographical flexibility
High

Respondent cooperation
Moderate--poorly designed questionnaire will
have low response rate
146

Mail Surveys
Versatility of questioning
Highly standardized format

Questionnaire length
Varies depending on incentive

Item nonresponse
High

147

Mail Surveys
Possibility of respondent misunderstanding
Highest--no interviewer present for clarification

Degree of interviewer influence of answer

None--interviewer absent

Supervision of interviewers
Not applicable

148

Mail Surveys
Anonymity of respondent
High

Ease of call back or follow-up

Easy, but takes time

Cost
Lowest

149

How to Increase Response Rates

for Mail Surveys
Write a sales oriented cover letter
Money helps
- As a token of appreciation
- For a charity
Stimulate respondents interest with interesting questions
Follow Up
- Keying questionnaires with codes
Advanced notification
Sponsorship by a well-known and prestigious institution
150

Increasing Response Rates

Effective cover letter

Money helps
Interesting questions
Follow-ups
Advanced notification
Survey sponsorship
Keying questionnaires
151

E-Mail Questionnaire Surveys

Speed of data collection
Instantaneous

Geographic flexibility
worldwide

Cheaper distribution and processing costs

152

E-Mail Questionnaire Surveys

Flexible, but
Extensive differences in the capabilities of
respondents computers and e-mail software
limit the types of questions and the layout

E-mails are not secure and eavesdropping

can possibly occur
Respondent cooperation
Varies depending if e-mail is seen as spam
153

Internet Surveys
A self-administered questionnaire posted on
a Web site.
Respondents provide answers to questions
displayed online by highlighting a phrase,
clicking an icon, or keying in an answer.

154

155

Internet Surveys
Speed of data collection
Instantaneous

Cost effective
Geographic flexibility
worldwide

Visual and interactive

156

Internet Surveys
Respondent cooperation
Varies depending on web site
Varies depending on type of sample
When user does not opt-in or expect a
voluntary survey cooperation is low.
Self-selection problems in web site visitation
surveys - participants tend to be more deeply
involved than the average person.
157

Internet Surveys
Versatility of questioning
Extremely versatile

Questionnaire length
Individualized base on respondent answers
Longer questionnaires with panel samples

Item nonresponse
Software can assure none
158

Internet Surveys
Representative samples
The quality of internet samples may vary
substantially.
A sample of those who visit a web page and
voluntarily fill out a questionnaires can
have self-selection error.

159

Internet Surveys
1) not all individuals in the general public
have internet access
2) many respondents lack powerful
computers with high-speed connections to
the internet
3) many respondents computer skills will
be relatively unsophisticated.
160

Internet Surveys
Possibility for respondent misunderstanding
High

Interviewer influence of answers

None

Supervision of interviewers
not required

161

Internet Surveys
Anonymity of Respondent
Respondent can be anonymous or known

Ease of Callback or Follow-up

difficult unless e-mail address is known

Special Features
allows graphics and streaming media

162

Welcome Screen
Welcome Screen like a cover letter
It contains the name of the research company and
how to contact the organization if there is a
problem or concern.
"If you have any concerns or questions about this
survey, or if you experience any technical
difficulties, please contact (NAME OF
RESEARCH ORGANIZATION).
163

Welcome Screen should ask for

password and give instructions
Please enter your personal password from your
invitation.Then, press the "enter" key to begin the
survey or simply click on the right arrow at the
bottom of the page to begin the survey (after you
have read the remaining instructions):
During the survey, please do not use your
browser's FORWARD and BACK buttons.
Use the arrows on the lower right to move
backward and forward through the survey.
164

There is no best form of

survey; each has advantages
and disadvantages.

165

Selected Questions to Determine

the Appropriate Technique
Is the assistance of an interviewer
necessary?
Are respondents interested in the issues
being investigated?
Will cooperation be easily attained?

166

Selected Questions to Determine

the Appropriate Technique
How quickly is the information needed?
Will the study require a long and complex
questionnaire?
How large is the budget?

167

Pretesting
A trial run with a group of respondents to
iron out fundamental problems in the
instructions of survey design

Practice is the best of all

instructors.
Publius Syrus

168