The radio spectrum

1. Introduction
Radio waves are the principal means by which
wireless communications can be achieved
what they are, how they behave, what they
are used for and what their limitations are
Need to keep information up to date since the
technologies that are the focus of this course
are all changing rapidly

2. Radio waves
Most forms of wireless communication involve radio
waves and the words wireless and radio are often
synonymous.
Radio waves are a particular form of electromagnetic
radiation; other forms include light, X-rays and gamma
rays.
The term electromagnetic is used because all these
waves involve the physics of electricity and magnetism.

2.1 Frequency and wavelength

The time between successive oscillations is called the
period of the wave, and is measured in seconds.
The number of complete oscillations (or cycles) which
take place in a second called the frequency, and is
measured in hertz (1 Hz = 1 cycle per second).
There is a simple relationship between the frequency f
and period T:
f=1/T.

Wavelength and speed of light

relation:
Wavelength is the distance between cycles, and is
usually measured in meters or fractions of a
meter

Where c is speed of light (3x108 m/s).

Wavelength and speed of light

relation cont.

Activity 2 (self-assessment/revision)
Calculate the period of a radio wave whose
frequency is 2 GHz.
Calculate the frequency of a radio wave whose
period is 4 ms.
Solution:

Assignments
1. The mains electricity supply is sinusoidal,
with a frequency of 50 Hz. What is its period?
2. The period of the mains supply in the USA is
approximately 0.0167 s. Is the frequency of
the mains in the USA therefore higher or
lower than in the KSA?

The electromagnetic spectrum:

Spectrum represents a spread (or range) of frequencies.
Complete spectrum of electromagnetic waves is shown
in Figure 3.
Radio waves are electromagnetic waves with
wavelengths above 1 mm.
In this range, Waves are suitable for communications.
At shorter wavelengths are infrared radiation, visible
light, ultraviolet, X-rays and gamma rays

The electromagnetic spectrum Cont.

3. The radio spectrum

3. The radio spectrum in Figure 5

All electromagnetic waves at frequencies less than 300 GHz.
It is a part (from VLF to EHF) of the bigger electromagnetic
spectrum.
It only deals with the RF (radio frequency) portion of the
spectrum.
Used by radio transmitters etc.
Each decade in Figure 5 is a defined frequency band, often referred
to by name, from very low frequency (VLF) at the bottom up to
extremely high frequency (EHF) at the top.
The region above 1 GHz, which includes the EHF, SHF and part of
the UHF bands, is also commonly called the microwave spectrum.
Terminology is not completely consistent, however, and some
authors regard microwaves as beginning at 3 GHz.
These wavelengths range from 100 km for 3 kHz, down to 1 mm for
300 GHz.

Usage of bands:
Each frequency band in Figure 5 includes some typical
wireless application areas, from military and navigation
applications at the lowest frequencies up to satellite
communications and radar at the top but these are just
a few examples of use.
In the UK the spectrum is coordinated by the National
Frequency Planning Group, who issues a Frequency
Allocation Table (FAT) from time to time.

Interference Concept:
If two radio stations are transmitting on the
same frequency or on two frequencies that
are very close then their signals get mixed up - there is interference between them which
can be heard as whistles, distortion or mixedup sounds.
Hence Spectrum management is required.

Log Scale:
Commonly used radio frequencies range from 3 kHz up to 300 GHz,
which is a large factor of higher.

Because of this large range it is useful to represent frequencies

graphically on a logarithmic (or log) scale.
The main characteristic of a log scale is that equal distances along it
correspond to a multiplication by a constant factor.
The intervals which represent a factor-of-10 change, such as
between 3 and 30, and between 30 and 300, are called decades.

4 Bandwidth and channels

4.1 Bandwidth
Bandwidth (BW):
Spread over a range of radio frequencies is called the bandwidth.
In Figure 6(a) the box drawn between f1 and f2 on the frequency
axis represents BW.
Generally speaking, the more data that is conveyed by a signal, the
larger is its bandwidth.
Video signals generally require a much greater bandwidth than
speech signals.

4.2. Channels

Interference is avoided by ensuring that the bandwidth of

a signal does not overlap with an adjacent one.
Therefore each frequency band can only cope with a
certain number of signals.
To provide an adequate bandwidth for each signal and to
avoid overlap, many application bands are structured into
specified channels, as shown in Figure 7.

Channels Cont.
A specific example is broadcast TV, which in
the UK takes place in the frequency range of
470--854 MHz, part of the UHF band. This
frequency range is shared out equally into 48
channels. These are numbered from channel
21 at the lowest frequency up to channel 68 at
the highest.

Activity 4 (self-assessment/revision)
If each UHF TV channel occupies the same bandwidth in
the 470854 MHz frequency range, what is the bandwidth
available to each channel? Which frequencies are occupied
by channel 21? Which frequencies are occupied by channel
68?
Solution:

5. Some common radio applications

Some common radio applications

The early days of radio broadcasting and
communications were centered on the LF and
MF bands.
Most of the current applications relevant to
this course are in the VHF, UHF and SHF
bands.
This trend to higher frequencies is expected to
continue.

Licensed and unlicensed bands:

There is also a distinction between licensed and unlicensed bands.
Unlicensed bands are a bit of a free-for-all, in which finding an
unused channel cannot be guaranteed.
However, there are regulations which specify maximum transmitted
power, so that any interference effects are local.
This is appropriate for short range equipment such as Wi-Fi
networks, cordless headphones and DECT digital phones.
The use of licensed bands involves paying a fee for the legal right to
use certain
Frequencies and these are controlled much more closely.
Mobile phone systems and broadcasting fall within this category

6. The propagation of radio signals

The propagation of radio signals

We shall briefly describe some of the main
factors which contribute to the characteristics
of radio propagation and some of the
differences between the various frequency
bands

6.1 The inverse square law

As you move further away from a transmitter, the power you receive becomes
smaller.
We will discuss factors which cause the radio signal to decrease.
How the received power varies with distance in what is perhaps the simplest
situation -- in free space when there is no other matter nearby to affect
propagation between the transmitter and receiver.
Also assume that the transmitting and receiving antennas transmit or receive
equally in all directions. These are called isotropic antennas.
In free space, a radio signal spreads out in three dimensions, so rather than a
circle, the ripples spread out as a spherical surface. This is illustrated in Fig. 8
The inverse square law of radio propagation: the received power decreases with
1/d2.
So in free space with an isotropic transmitting antenna, power received by a fixed
size of antenna varies according to the inverse square law.

The inverse square law

Non-free space
i.e. on the surface of the earth:
Communications on the surface of the earth are
not always as simple as above.
Although the inverse square law must operate, in
addition there is the ground to consider, the
atmosphere, the weather, mountains, valleys,
buildings, furniture, people, vehicles and trees.

These can all alter the propagation of radio

waves, sometimes dramatically, and the effects
are described in the following sections.

Activity 6 (self-assessment)
If an antenna in free space receives 16 MW of
power at a distance of 2 km from an isotropic
transmitter, how much will it receive at 4 km?
How much at 8 km?

Solution:

6.2. Absorption
Absorption causes attenuation.
Gases of the atmosphere or the walls can
cause wave energy to reduce even more
quickly than under the inverse square law
alone.

Attenuation Coefficient of radio waves in

the atmosphere

Remarks on Fig. 9
The horizontal scale is frequency, from 10 GHz to 400 GHz on a logarithmic
scale.
The vertical scale represents attenuation of a signal, and runs from zero to
50 dB/km on a linear scale.

An attenuation value per unit distance is often called an attenuation

coefficient.
To find the total loss of a path in dB, you simply multiply this attenuation
coefficient in dB/km by the path length (in km).
Form the fig. 9 it is clear as the frequency increases towards 400 GHz, the
amount of absorption rises steadily, with a number of peaks.

Remarks on Fig. 9
Absorption and other losses by building materials such as brick or wood
are also significant, and increase as the frequency goes into the gigahertz
range.
The overall picture of these materials is very complicated.

Attenuation Coefficient of radio waves

in different materials

Example
A 1.8 GHz radio wave propagates 18 km through the
atmosphere, and then through two brick walls, each of
100mm (0.1m) thickness. Rain leads to an atmospheric
loss of 1.5dB/km, and brick attenuates at 30 dB/m at
this frequency. Calculate the total power loss in dB
over this path that is due to attenuation by the
atmosphere and by the wall. (Ignore the inverse square
law.) Type only the final total power loss number.
18 km * 1.5 db / km = 27 db
2 * (100*10^-3m) * 30 db/m = 6 db
total power = 27 + 6 = 33

Positive side of signal loss:

The positive side of signal loss through the inverse square law, absorption
and other effects.
Because radio waves decay with distance of propagation, then frequencies
can be reused in different places without interfering with each other.
This is the principle behind cellular phone systems, which allow a far
higher number of simultaneous users than non-cellular systems.
It makes feasible all the short range devices such as Bluetooth headsets
and remote car locking.

And it allows reuse of broadcast frequencies on a national or regional

level, thus using the limited spectrum much more efficiently.

Decibels:
A decibel is a way to express a ratio of powers, such as:

Figure 10 plots the decibel values for a number of power ratios.

For example, 3 dB is equivalent to a power ratio of 2.
10 dB represents a power ratio of 10.
20 dB is a ratio of 100, and so on.
Similarly, a ratio of 1/2 is -3 dB, 1/10 is -10 dB and 1/100 is -20 dB.
An amplifier which increases signal power by 1000 times is said to have a
gain of 30 dB.
If the signal power is reduced by a factor of 1000, then you can say that
this is a loss of 30 dB or alternatively a gain of -30 dB.
However, you may also come across sources which refer to a loss of -30dB.
The bottom line is you should always know whether the signal is getting
bigger or smaller and interpret the plus or minus signs.

Power Conversion
Power in db

Power Ratio

6.3 Line of sight (LoS)

Line of sight Cont.

LoS require an uninterrupted path between transmitter (Tx) and receiver
(Rx).
But the line of sight is often limited because of two main factors.
Curvature of the earth: The first is the curvature of the earth, illustrated in
Figure 11(a).
With a transmitter and receiver placed at certain heights above the
surface, the radio horizon means that waves can only propagate directly
between them up to a maximum distance.
Obstacles: The second factor limiting line of sight is the presence of
obstacles in the path such as mountains, forests, buildings and vehicles.
If these attenuate radio waves then they will affect reception. It is no
longer a line of sight when, say, a building which absorbs most of the
radiation at a certain frequency is in the way.
Again taking an optical analogy, the building is casting a radio shadow in
which the signal will not be received.

Antennas

Basics:
Transmitting Antenna: Radio waves are produced by
an oscillating electric current in the transmitting
antenna.
Receiving Antenna: Radio waves then go on to
generate a small electric current in the receiving
antenna.
Same antenna can be used for both transmission and
reception.
A properly designed antenna will generate a much
larger signal than will an arbitrary piece of wire.

Half-wavelength (or /2) Dipole

Antenna:
A fundamental form of antenna is called a dipole.
A key property of the dipole is its length: if the length is half the
wavelength of the radio signal, then the antenna will resonate at
this frequency.
It effectively becomes tuned to this resonant frequency, and the
efficiency of converting radio waves to electrical signals and vice
versa is very high.
The efficiency falls away at higher or lower frequencies, although it
resonates as well at frequencies which are 3x, 5x, 7x... higher.(These
are called the odd harmonics of the fundamental resonant
frequency).
The even harmonics are 2x, 4x, etc., which do not resonate.)
If the dipole is half the wavelength, then it is known as a halfwavelength (or ) dipole, as shown in Figure 19(a).

Vertical rod or whip antenna:

Used for FM reception in cars and for many other
common wireless applications.
It turns out that a length of (or /4) works best in this
configuration, as illustrated in Figure 19(b).
One side of the connection is referred to as the
ground plane, which often means the surface that the
antenna is mounted on (such as a car body).
If the length is less than l/4 then, although the received
signal strength is reduced, the performance is often
adequate in many practical situations.

Bandwidth of an antenna:
The bandwidth of an antenna can be made wider
or narrower than that of a simple dipole by using
more complicated designs and by connecting it to
suitable electronic circuitry.
While many applications, such as a singlefrequency transmitter, work better with a sharply
resonant antenna with a narrow bandwidth,
other applications, such as a wideband receiver,
require a wide bandwidth antenna.

Omnidirectional Antennas:
An important property of antennas is the way in which
their sensitivity varies with direction.
A vertical rod will radiate (or receive) equally as well in
all horizontal directions around it. This is termed an
omni-directional radiation pattern.
Note that such an antenna is not isotropic (i.e. it does
not radiate equally in all three dimensions) because
there is very little signal radiated in the up and down
directions, i.e. along the length of the rod.
But such an omnidirectional pattern is very useful, for
example, for a transmitter broadcasting to the region
around it.

Directional Antennas:
Example: The dish antenna used for microwave or
satellite communications.
For transmission, a dipole at the focus of the dish
radiates energy, and the dish reflects like a
curved mirror to direct most of this energy along
a narrow beam, rather like a spotlight forming a
narrow beam of light.
For reception the dish reflects the incoming
radiation to a focus at the dipole. This is an
example of a highly directional antenna that is
very efficient within its narrow beam.

Activity 11 (self-assessment)
Estimate the physical length of a l/4 rod to be
used for a 100 MHz FM radio station. How
long would it be for a 2.4 GHz Wi-Fi link?
(Hint: in each case, assume a free space
wavelength.)

Solution

9.1. Polarisation
EM Wave:
A slightly more detailed picture of an electromagnetic (EM) wave is
shown in Figure 20.
This represents the wave propagating from left to right across the
page, with an electric field oscillating in a direction up and down
the page, and a magnetic field oscillating in a direction that is into
the page.
The magnetic field, electric field and direction of propagation are all
perpendicular to one another, like three edges of a cube which
meet at a corner.
The electromagnetic wave is the grouping of these electric and
magnetic fields which are oscillating in time with each other, but
which are perpendicular to each other and to the direction of
propagation.

Polarization:
Although the electric and magnetic fields must be perpendicular to
each other, this pair together can be oriented at any angle around
the axis of propagation of the wave.
The direction along which the electric field is oriented is called the
polarization of the wave.
For radio waves propagating parallel to the ground, the case when
the electric field is also parallel to the ground is called horizontal
polarization.
If the electric field is perpendicular to the ground then it is vertical
polarization.
Although any angle of polarization is possible, usually radio waves
are deliberately polarized to be either horizontal or vertical.