TQM - Statistical Process Control

Statistical Process Control
Variation is inherent in any process

No two products will be identical
Variation is due to equipment, materials, operator & environment
Variation assignable causes, chance causes
Assignable causes
larger in magnitude, easily traced & detected
Chance Causes
Inevitable in any process, difficult to trace & detect
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When assignable
causes (Special causes) are present

- Process is out of control
-diff among machine, materials, processes, power
shutdown
When chance
causes (natural causes) are present

- process is in statistical control
- human variability, minor variation in raw material,
machine vibration etc

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Assignable Causes
A process is said to be in statistical control when the location,
spread, or shape of its distribution does not change over time.
After the process is in statistical control, managers use SPC
procedures to detect the onset of assignable causes so that they
can be eliminated.
Location
Spread
Shape
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Statistics: a science that deals with the collection, tabulation,
analysis, interpretation & presentation of quantitative data
SPC: application of statistical methods to the measurement and
analysis of variation in any process
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Two categories of measurement

Variables
Continuous (length, weight, voltage, temperature)
Measurement concerned with degree of conformance to
specification
Expressed in averages & std. deviation
Attributes
Performance characteristic either present / absent
Counted
No. of defectives, no. of red cars produced in a month
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Population (Universe)
Statistics used to refer to any collection of individuals or
of their attributes etc
An unknown pattern of variation from which known
sample can be drawn
Sample
A part or small section selected from the population
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Measures of central tendency- Numerical value that

describes the central position of the data
Mean the arithmetic average. This is used for continuous

data.
Median a value that splits the data into two halves, that is,
one half of the data is smaller than that number, the other half
larger.
Mode this is the category that has the most data (frequently
occurring value)
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Mean
To find the mean, add all of the values, then divide by the
number of values.
Population
Sample
N
n
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Mean example
listing
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
n = 15
total
X
14
17
31
28
42
43
51
51
66
70
67
70
78
62
47
737
737/15 =
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x-bar
49.13333
Median
The median is a number chosen so that half of the values in

the data set are smaller than that number, and the other half
are larger.
To find the median
List the numbers in ascending order
If there is a number in the middle (odd number of values)
that is the median
If there is not a middle number (even number of values)
take the two in the middle, their average is the median
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Median Example
listing
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
X
14
17
28
31
42
43
47
51
51
62
66
67
70
70
78
listing
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
X
14
17
28
31
42
43
47
51
53
57
62
66
67
70
70
78
51+53 = 52
2
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Mode
The mode is simply the category or value which occurs the

most in a data set.
If a category has radically more than the others, it is a mode.
Generally speaking we do not consider more than two modes
in a data set.
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Mode Example Uni-modal

- The mode is the class, not the frequency.
176
174
172
170
168
A
B
C
D
E
166
164
162
160
158
E
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Mode Example Bi-modal

- The mode is the class, not the frequency.
176
174
172
A
B
C
D
E
F
170
168
166
164
162
160
158
F
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Measures of Dispersion
How the individual observations are spread on either side of

the centre
Measures of dispersion are descriptive statistics that describe

how similar a set of scores are to each other
The more similar the scores are to each other, the lower
the measure of dispersion will be
The less similar the scores are to each other, the higher the
measure of dispersion will be
In general, the more spread out a distribution is, the larger
the measure of dispersion will be
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Which of the
distributions of scores
has the larger dispersion?
The upper distribution has
more dispersion because the
scores are more spread out
That is, they are less
similar to each other
125
100
75
50
25
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
125
100
75
50
25
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
16
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Range
Mean deviation
Standard deviation
variance
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The Range
The range is defined as the difference between the largest
score in the set of data and the smallest score in the set of
data, XL XS
What is the range of the following data:
4 8 1 6 6 2 9 3 6 9
The largest score (XL) is 9; the smallest score (XS) is 1;
the range is XL - XS = 9 - 1 = 8
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When To Use the Range
The range is rarely used in scientific work as it is fairly

insensitive
It depends on only two scores in the set of data, XL and XS
Two very different sets of data can have the same range:
1 1 1 1 9 vs 1 3 5 7 9
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Variance
Variance is defined as the average of the square
deviations
Variance is the mean of the squared deviation scores
The larger the variance is, the more the scores deviate
from the mean
The smaller the variance is, the less the scores deviate
from the mean
N
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Standard Deviation
Since squared units of measure are often awkward to deal
with, the square root of variance is often used instead
The standard deviation is the square root of variance
Standard deviation = variance
Variance = standard deviation2
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Computational Formula Example

X
9
8
6
5
8
6
X2
81
64
36
25
64
36
X-
2
1
-1
-2
1
-1
(X-)
4
1
1
4
1
1
= 42
= 306
=0
= 12
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Computational Formula Example
12
6
2
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Normal Curve
The normal curve is often called the Gaussian distribution,
after Carl Friedrich Gauss, who discovered many of its
properties. Gauss, commonly viewed as one of the greatest
mathematicians of all time.
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Properties of Normal Curve

Also called Bell Curve or Gaussian Curve
Perfectly symmetrical normal distribution
The mean of a distribution is the midpoint of the curve
The tails of the curve are infinite
Mean of the curve = median = mode
The area under the curve is measured in standard deviations
from the mean
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Normal Curve
Has a mean as mid point and standard deviation = 1.
General relationships:
1 s = about 68.26%
2 s = about 95.44%
3 s = about 99.72%
68.26%
95.44%
99.72%
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
3
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Normal Curve (Z-Score)
Measured in standard deviations relative to the mean of the

curve.
The Z-score can be used to determine an area under the curve
known as a probability.
Xi X
z
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Control chart
Walter Shewhart
Developer of Control Charts in the late 1920s

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Control Chart
A Control Chart is a graph that displays data taken over time

and the variations of this data
Control charts are particularly useful for monitoring quality

and giving early warnings that a process may be going Out of
Control and on its way to producing defective parts.
Objective is to restrict the variation of the process to variation

due to chance causes, by detecting and eliminating the
assignable causes
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Control Chart
The basis is that the laboratory runs control samples together

with the routine samples.
The control values are plotted in a control chart.
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Control Chart
Upper Control Limit
(UCL)
Central Line (CL)
Lower Control Limit

(LCL)
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Control Chart Examples
Control Chart - Types

1. Variables X bar chart, R chart and chart
2. Attributes p chart, np chart, c chart and u chart
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Control Chart - Variables

X bar and R charts
For small samples usually less than 25
Overall mean = averages of sample means
Overall range = average of ranges

For X bar chart
For R chart
UCL = X + (A2 * R)
UCL = D4 * R
LCL = X - (A2 * R)
LCL = D3 * R
A2, D4, D3 constant for a

subgroup size
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A Pharma company
manufactures a certain
brand of capsules. The
company randomly
picks up samples of 5
capsules from
production at regular
intervals and the
weights in gms of 10
such samples are
given below. Construct
the X bar and R chart
and comment on the
process
Sample
No
Sari
don
colp
ol
met
acin
cold
act
cetri
zin
42
60
65
75
70
39
30
36
45
72
55
66
45
72
78
65
44
50
33
29
75
19
24
80
76
63
48
54
72
36
37
32
48
39
57
75
65
40
45
70
33
40
25
20
50
10
60
63
60
81
55
A2 = 0.31, D4 = 1.78, D3 = 0.22
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Sample
No
X1
X2
X3
X4
X5
42
60
65
75
70
39
30
36
45
72
55
66
45
72
78
65
44
50
33
29
75
19
24
80
76
63
48
54
72
36
37
32
48
39
57
75
65
40
45
70
33
40
25
20
50
10
60
63
60
81
55
Mean
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Range

Sample
No
X1
X2
X3
X4
X5
Mean
42
60
65
75
70
62.4
39
30
36
45
72
55
66
45
72
78
65
44
50
33
29
75
19
24
80
76
63
48
54
72
36
37
32
48
39
57
75
65
40
45
70
33
40
25
20
50
10
60
63
60
81
55
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Range

Sample
No
X1
X2
X3
X4
X5
Mean
42
60
65
75
70
62.4
39
30
36
45
72
44.4
55
66
45
72
78
65
44
50
33
29
75
19
24
80
76
63
48
54
72
36
37
32
48
39
57
75
65
40
45
70
33
40
25
20
50
10
60
63
60
81
55
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Range

Sample
No
X1
X2
X3
X4
X5
Mean
42
60
65
75
70
62.4
39
30
36
45
72
44.4
55
66
45
72
78
63.2
65
44
50
33
29
75
19
24
80
76
63
48
54
72
36
37
32
48
39
57
75
65
40
45
70
33
40
25
20
50
10
60
63
60
81
55
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Range

Sample
No
X1
X2
X3
X4
X5
Mean
42
60
65
75
70
62.4
39
30
36
45
72
44.4
55
66
45
72
78
63.2
65
44
50
33
29
44.2
75
19
24
80
76
63
48
54
72
36
37
32
48
39
57
75
65
40
45
70
33
40
25
20
50
10
60
63
60
81
55
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Range

Sample
No
X1
X2
X3
X4
X5
Mean
42
60
65
75
70
62.4
39
30
36
45
72
44.4
55
66
45
72
78
63.2
65
44
50
33
29
44.2
75
19
24
80
76
54.8
63
48
54
72
36
54.6
37
32
48
39
57
42.6
75
65
40
45
70
59
33
40
25
20
50
33.6
10
60
63
60
81
55
63.8
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Range

Sample
No
X1
X2
X3
X4
X5
Mean
Range
42
60
65
75
70
62.4
33
39
30
36
45
72
44.4
55
66
45
72
78
63.2
65
44
50
33
29
44.2
75
19
24
80
76
54.8
63
48
54
72
36
54.6
37
32
48
39
57
42.6
75
65
40
45
70
59
33
40
25
20
50
33.6
10
60
63
60
81
55
63.8
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Sample
No
X1
X2
X3
X4
X5
Mean
Range
42
60
65
75
70
62.4
33
39
30
36
45
72
44.4
42
55
66
45
72
78
63.2
65
44
50
33
29
44.2
75
19
24
80
76
54.8
63
48
54
72
36
54.6
37
32
48
39
57
42.6
75
65
40
45
70
59
33
40
25
20
50
33.6
10
60
63
60
81
55
63.8
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Sample
No
X1
X2
X3
X4
X5
Mean
Range
42
60
65
75
70
62.4
33
39
30
36
45
72
44.4
42
55
66
45
72
78
63.2
33
65
44
50
33
29
44.2
75
19
24
80
76
54.8
63
48
54
72
36
54.6
37
32
48
39
57
42.6
75
65
40
45
70
59
33
40
25
20
50
33.6
10
60
63
60
81
55
63.8
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Sample
No
X1
X2
X3
X4
X5
Mean
Range
42
60
65
75
70
62.4
33
39
30
36
45
72
44.4
42
55
66
45
72
78
63.2
33
65
44
50
33
29
44.2
36
75
19
24
80
76
54.8
63
48
54
72
36
54.6
37
32
48
39
57
42.6
75
65
40
45
70
59
33
40
25
20
50
33.6
10
60
63
60
81
55
63.8
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Sample
No
X1
X2
X3
X4
X5
Mean
Range
42
60
65
75
70
62.4
33
39
30
36
45
72
44.4
42
55
66
45
72
78
63.2
33
65
44
50
33
29
44.2
36
75
19
24
80
76
54.8
61
63
48
54
72
36
54.6
36
37
32
48
39
57
42.6
25
75
65
40
45
70
59
35
33
40
25
20
50
33.6
30
10
60
63
60
81
55
63.8
26
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Sample
No
X1
X2
X3
X4
X5
Mean
Range
42
60
65
75
70
62.4
33
39
30
36
45
72
44.4
42
55
66
45
72
78
63.2
33
65
44
50
33
29
44.2
36
75
19
24
80
76
54.8
61
63
48
54
72
36
54.6
36
37
32
48
39
57
42.6
25
75
65
40
45
70
59
35
33
40
25
20
50
33.6
30
10
60
63
60
81
55
63.8
26
522.6
357
Total
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Sample
No
X1
X2
X3
X4
X5
42
60
65
75
70
62.4
33
39
30
36
45
72
44.4
42
55
66
45
72
78
63.2
33
65
44
50
33
29
44.2
36
75
19
24
80
76
54.8
61
R = 357 / 10
63
48
54
72
36
54.6
36
= 35.7
37
32
48
39
57
42.6
25
75
65
40
45
70
59
35
33
40
25
20
50
33.6
30
10
60
63
60
81
55
63.8
26
522.6
357
Total
Mean Range
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X = 522.6 / 10
= 52.26

For X bar chart
UCL
X = 52.26
= X + (A2 * R)
= 52.26 + (0.31 * 35.7) = 63.327
R = 35.7
LCL
A2 = 0.31,
D4 = 1.78,
D3 = 0.22
= X - (A2 * R)
= 52.26 - (0.31 * 35.7) = 41.193
For R chart
UCL = D4 * R = 1.78 * 35.7 = 63.54

LCL = D3 * R = 0.22 * 35.7 = 7.854
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Control Chart
UCL = 63.32
CL = 52.26
LCL = 41.19
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Control Chart
UCL = 63.32
CL = 52.26
LCL = 41.19
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Control Chart
UCL = 63.32
CL = 52.26
LCL = 41.19
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Control Chart
UCL = 63.32
CL = 52.26
LCL = 41.19
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Control Chart
UCL = 63.32
CL = 52.26
LCL = 41.19
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Control Chart
UCL = 63.32
CL = 52.26
LCL = 41.19
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Control Chart
UCL = 63.32
CL = 52.26
LCL = 41.19
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Control Chart
UCL = 63.32
CL = 52.26
LCL = 41.19
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Control Chart for Attributes

Attributes cannot be measured but can be observed and counted.
Attributes data are usually easy to collect, often by visual
inspection incorrect color, cracks, blow holes etc
Defect: A single non-conforming quality characteristic of an item
Defective: Item having one or more defects
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p Chart
Monitors the proportion of defective items, variable subgroup size
25 to 30 samples , each of size around 100 are taken over a time
period to analyse for non - conformities.
p fraction defectives ratio of the no. of defective articles found in
any inspection to the total no. of articles actually inspected.
p
p - central line - average fraction defective p
n
p(1 p)
UCL p 3
n
p(1 p)
LCL p 3
n
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p Chart
p
p - central line - average fraction defective p
n
p(1 p)
UCL p 3
n
p(1 p)
LCL p 3
n
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np Chart
Monitors the proportion of defective items, Constant subgroup size
n p- central line - average fraction defective
UCL n p 3 n p(1 n p)
LCL n p 3 n p(1 n p)
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Example No. 4
Record of defective observed
during the inspection process of
an automatic machine producing
small capacitors of std size.
(i) Find 99.7% control limits for
the process
(ii) Draw the control chart &
comment on the state of
control of the process
Sample
No
Sample
Size
No. of
defectives
25
50
45
55
35
40
50
65
30
10
25
11
55
12
40
13
50
14
25
15
40S. Ajit

Soln:
99.7% means 3
Also size of the sample not uniform
Average sample size (n) = sum of size of each sample / total no. of samples
n = 25+50+45+55+35++40 / 15
= 630 / 15
= 42
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Average fraction defective
Central line
p = total no. of defectives / total no. of items inspected

= 3+5+1+2+0++2+2 / 630
= 44 / 630
= 0. 07
Upper Control Limit
p(1 p)
UCL p 3
n
Lower Control Limit
p(1 p)
LCL p 3
n
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p(1 p)
UCL p 3
n
0.07 (1 0.07 )
UCL 0.07 3
42
UCL = 0.188
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p(1 p)
LCL p 3
n
0.07 (1 0.07 )
LCL 0.07 3
42
LCL = -0.048
Since count cannot be less than 0
LCL = 0
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Fraction defectives
= no. of defectives / Sample size
No. of
defectives
Sample
Size
25
50
45
55
35
40
50
65
30
25
55
40
50
25
40S. Ajit
fraction
defectives
Fraction defectives
No. of
defectives
Sample
Size
fraction
defectives
25
3/25 = 0.12
50
45
55
35
40
50
65
30
25
55
40
50
25
40 S. Ajit
Fraction defectives
No. of
defectives
Sample
Size
fraction
defectives
25
3/25 = 0.12
50
5/50 = 0.10
45
55
35
40
50
65
30
25
55
40
50
25
40 S. Ajit
Fraction defectives
No. of
defectives
Sample
Size
fraction
defectives
25
3/25 = 0.12
50
5/50 = 0.10
45
1/45 = 0.022
55
35
40
50
65
30
25
55
40
50
25
40 S. Ajit
Fraction defectives
No. of
defectives
Sample
Size
fraction
defectives
25
3/25 = 0.12
50
5/50 = 0.10
45
1/45 = 0.022
55
0.036
35
40
0.025
50
0.018
65
0.03
30
0.010
25
0.08
55
0.09
40
0.10
50
0.06
25
0.08
40 S. Ajit
0.05
Control Chart
UCL = 0.19
CL = 0.07
LCL = 0
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Control Chart
UCL = 0.19
CL = 0.07
LCL = 0
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Control Chart
UCL = 0.19
CL = 0.07
LCL = 0
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Control Chart
UCL = 0.19
CL = 0.07
LCL = 0
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Control Chart
UCL = 0.19
CL = 0.07
LCL = 0
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Control Chart
UCL = 0.19
CL = 0.07
LCL = 0
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Control Chart
UCL = 0.19
CL = 0.07
LCL = 0
All points lie inside the control limits, process is in control
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C Chart
No. of defects in a subgroup of constant sample size
(a defective TV defects in board, tuner, color control, volume control)
c no. of defects; n no. of samples
total no of defects in all sample

c
total no. of sample
UCL c 3 c
c
c
n
LCL c 3 c
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u Chart
No. of defects in a subgroup of variable sample size
(textiles, films, paper continuous production)
u no. of defects;
total no of defects in all sample

u
no. of units in a sample
u
UCL u 3
n
u
u
n
u
LCL u 3
n
S. Ajit
Control Charts
1. Control charts are designed to be used by employees in their
work areas rather than by inspectors or quality control
personnel
2. Under SPC burden of quality rests with the employees
3. Control charts can also be applied to services organization
(cheque processing accuracy in banks, on-time delivery of
meals in restaurants, etc)
S. Ajit
Process Capability
Control limits are determined using averages but specifications are
for individual values
Even when the process in control, the individual item may not be
within specification limits
Process capability is the ability of the process to meet the design
specifications for a service or product.
Nominal value is a target for design specifications.
Tolerance is an allowance above or below the nominal value.
Process Capability
=6
= 6
d
2
d2 statistical factor
S. Ajit
Process Capability
Nominal
value
Process distribution
Lower
specification
20
Upper
specification
25
Process is capable
30
Minutes
Process Capability
Nominal
value
Process distribution
Lower
specification
20
Upper
specification
25
Process is not capable
30
Minutes
Effects of Reducing
Variability on Process Capability
Nominal value
Six sigma
Four sigma
Two sigma
Lower
specification
Upper
specification
Mean
Process Capability
Measures of process capability:
1. Process Capability Index Cp:
USL LSL
Cp
6
(i) If Cp > 1
Process variation is less than specification

Process is capable
(ii) If Cp < 1
Process not capable of meeting specification
(iii) If Cp = 1
Process is just meeting specification
Normally accepted value is 1.33, nowadays companies stress for Cp = 2

S. Ajit
Process Capability
Measures of process capability:
2. Process Performance Capability Index Cpk : Cpk measures how
close you are to your target and how consistent you are to around
your average performance
Cpk is an index (a simple number) which measures how close a
process is running to its specification limits, relative to the natural
variability of the process. The larger the index, the less likely it is
that any item will be outside the specs." Neil Polhemus
USL X or X LSL
C pk min
S. Ajit
Process Capability
A Pharma company
manufactures a certain
brand of capsules. The
company randomly
picks up samples of 5
capsules from
production at regular
intervals and the
weights in gms of 10
such samples are
given below.
Determine whether
the process is capable
with a tolerance of 5
Sample
No
X1
X2
X3
X4
X5
42
60
65
75
70
39
30
36
45
72
55
66
45
72
78
65
44
50
33
29
75
19
24
80
76
63
48
54
72
36
37
32
48
39
57
75
65
40
45
70
33
40
25
20
50
10
60
63
60
81
55
A2 = 0.31, D4 = 1.78, D3 = 0.22, d2 = 2.326
S. Ajit
Process Capability
Sample
No
X1
X2
X3
X4
X5
42
60
65
75
70
62.4
33
39
30
36
45
72
44.4
42
55
66
45
72
78
63.2
33
65
44
50
33
29
44.2
36
75
19
24
80
76
54.8
61
R = 357 / 10
63
48
54
72
36
54.6
36
= 35.7
37
32
48
39
57
42.6
25
75
65
40
45
70
59
35
33
40
25
20
50
33.6
30
10
60
63
60
81
55
63.8
26
522.6
357
Total
Mean Range
S. Ajit
X = 522.6 / 10
= 52.26
Process Capability
X = 522.6 / 10
= 52.26
R = 357 / 10
USL = 52.26 + 0.5 = 57.26

LSL = 52.26 0.5 = 47.26
USL LSL
Cp
6
= 35.7
Process Capability
=6
= 6
d
d2 statistical factor
2

S. Ajit
Process Capability
X = 522.6 / 10
USL = 52.26 + 5 = 57.26
= 52.26
LSL = 52.26 5 = 47.26
R = 357 / 10
= 35.7
R

d
2
= 35.7 / 2.326 = 15.35
S. Ajit
Process Capability
USL = 52.26 + 5 = 57.26
LSL = 52.26 5 = 47.26
R

d
2
= 35.7 / 2.326 = 15.35
USL LSL
Cp
6
57 .26 47 .26
Cp
6 *15 .35
= 10 / 92.1 = 0.108
S. Ajit
Process Capability
USL X or X LSL
C pk min
USL X
= 57.26 52.26 = 5
X LSL
= 52.26 47.26 = 5
C pk
3 *15 .35

TQM - Statistical Process Control

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TQM - Statistical Process Control

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Statistical Process Control

Variation is inherent in any process

Variation assignable causes, chance causes

Statistical Process Control

causes (Special causes) are present

causes (natural causes) are present

machine vibration etc

Statistical Process Control

Two categories of measurement

Statistical Process Control

Measures of central tendency- Numerical value that

Mean the arithmetic average. This is used for continuous

The median is a number chosen so that half of the values in

The mode is simply the category or value which occurs the

Mode Example Uni-modal

Mode Example Bi-modal

How the individual observations are spread on either side of

Measures of dispersion are descriptive statistics that describe

When To Use the Range

The range is rarely used in scientific work as it is fairly

Computational Formula Example

Computational Formula Example

Properties of Normal Curve

Normal Curve (Z-Score)

Measured in standard deviations relative to the mean of the

Developer of Control Charts in the late 1920s

A Control Chart is a graph that displays data taken over time

Control charts are particularly useful for monitoring quality

Objective is to restrict the variation of the process to variation

The basis is that the laboratory runs control samples together

The control values are plotted in a control chart.

Lower Control Limit

Control Chart Examples

Control Chart - Types

Control Chart - Variables

Overall range = average of ranges

A2, D4, D3 constant for a

Control Chart - Variables

A2 = 0.31, D4 = 1.78, D3 = 0.22

Control Chart - Variables

Control Chart - Variables

Control Chart - Variables

Control Chart - Variables

Control Chart - Variables

Control Chart - Variables

Control Chart - Variables

Control Chart - Variables

Control Chart - Variables

Control Chart - Variables

Control Chart - Variables

Control Chart - Variables

Control Chart - Variables

Control Chart - Variables

= 52.26 - (0.31 * 35.7) = 41.193

UCL = D4 * R = 1.78 * 35.7 = 63.54

Control Chart for Attributes

Control Chart for Attributes

Control Chart for Attributes

Control Chart for Attributes

n p- central line - average fraction defective

Control Chart for Attributes

Control Chart for Attributes

p = total no. of defectives / total no. of items inspected

Lower Control Limit