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Importance of machining
The ever increasing importance of machining operations is
gaining new dimensions in the present industrial age
Competition towards
machined parts
the
economical
economical
manufacture
and
of
efficient
Generating shape: (a) straight turning, (b) taper turning, (c) contour turning,
(d) plain milling, (e) profile milling
Forming to create shape: (a) form turning, (b) drilling, and (c) broaching
End Milling
Slab Milling
Cutting Parameters
RPM-N
Cutting Parameters
MRR vfd
Roughing(R)
f 0.4 1.25mm / rev
d 2.5 20mm
Finishing(F)
f 0.125 0.4mm / rev
d 0.75 2.0mm
v R v F
MRR= Volume removed/cutting time=mm3/min
Tool Terminology
Side Rake
(SR), +
End Cutting
edge angle
(ECEA)
Facing
Cutting
edge
Nose
Radius
Clearance or end
relief angle
Back
Rake
(BR),+
Turning
Cutting
edge
Side relief
angle
Side cutting
edge angle
(SCEA)
shank
Face
(Clearance angle)
Front view
FV
(Lip angle)
Side
view
Top view
Rake Angles
Positive Rake
Negative Rake
Zero Rake
Rake angle
Back Rake angle
Side Rake angle
Rake Angle:
It is the angle formed between the face of the tool and a plane parallel
to its base
If this inclination is towards the shank, it is known as back rake or top
rake, when it is measured towards the side of the tool, it is called side
rake.
These rake angles guide the chips away from the cutting edge,
thereby reducing the chip pressure on the face and increasing the
keenness of the tool so that less power is required for cutting
Nagative rake:
If the face of the tool is so ground that it slopes upwards from the point it
is said to contain negative rake
It obviously reduces the keenness of the tool and increases strength of
the cutting edge
Such a rake is usually employed on carbide tipped tools when they are
used for machining extra hard surfaces like hardened steel parts and for
taking intermittent cuts
A tool with negative rake will have a larger lip angle, resulting in a
stronger tool
Favourable for tipped tools. Normally varies from 5 to 10 degrees.
Cutting-Tool Terms
Rake angle:
Ground on a tool to provide a smooth flow of the chip over the
tool so as to move it away from the work piece
Back Rake angle
36
Side Rake
Large as possible to allow chips to escape
Amount determined
Type and grade of cutting tool
Type of material being cut
Feed per revolution
Angle of keenness
Formed by side rake and side clearance
37
Back Rake
Angle formed between top face of tool and top of tool
shank
Positive
Top face slopes downward
away from point
+ve
Negative
Top face slopes upward
away from point
Neutral
-ve
38
Functions:
Strengthens finishing point of tool
Improves surface finish on work
Should be twice amount of feed per revolution
Too large chatter;
Too small weakens point
Values: 0.4 mm to 1.6 mm
42
Tool signature
It is the system of designating the principal angles of a
single point cutting tool.
The signature is the sequence of numbers listing the
various angles, in degrees, and the size of the nose
radius.
The two systems widely used are:
1) ASA System
2) ORS System
b - s - e - s - Ce - Cs - r
Bake rake angle
Side rake angle
Side cutting
Edge angle
s
Nose radius
Shear zone
When the cutting tool is forced against the work, the metal layer
which is just ahead of tool is compressed.
If the tool is forced further, a condition will be reached in which
the stress exceeds ultimate shear strength of the given work
material.
This leads shear along the shear plane and cutting off the chip
from the workpiece.
With further movement of the tool, the new layer is compressed
and the cycle is repeated.
The chip formed in the metal cutting operations, undergoes
plastic deformation, it becomes shorter (chip contraction) and
cross-section increases
Due to contraction, the length of chip is shorter than the length of
the tool travel, along the surface of the work.
CHIP FORMATION
Tool will cut or shear off the metal, provided
1.Tool is harder than the work metal
2.Tool is properly shaped so that its edge can be effective in
cutting the metal
3.The tool is strong enough to resist the cutting pressures
TYPES OF CHIPS
The chips produced during machining can be broadly classified
as 3 types:
1.Continuous chips
2.Discontinuos chips or Segmental chips
3.Continuous chips with build-up edge
Continuous chips
Continuous chips are formed when machining ductile materials(low
carbon steel, mild steel, copper, aluminium etc) with a cutting tool of
large rake angle and sharp cutting edge.
Such a chip flows off the tool face in the form of a ribbon
The other favorable conditions which give rise to this type of chips are
High cutting speed
Small feeds and depth of cut
Low friction
Formation of continuous chips are desirable because a smooth
surface will be obtained. They also help in providing higher tool life and
lower power consumption
Long continuous chips can cause problems of chip disposal
These problem can be solved by providing chip breakers(step or
groove in the tool rake face) which allow the chips to be broken into
small pieces so they can be removed easily
Discontinuous Chips
This type of chip is produced when machining brittle material, such as
cast iron and bronze, with a cutting tool having low rake angle.
The following factors favours the formation of discontinuous chips
Chips are broken into small segments instead of plastic flow of chip
along tool face.
The discontinuous chips may also result if the material is ductile and the
coefficient of friction between chip and tool is very high.
The most of the heat generated is carried by the chip and hence the tool
is heated to a lower temperature. Thus the tool life is longer
Effects of BUE
Effects of BUE formation
Cutting
speed
Feed
Rake Angle
Type of chip
Work
material
Continuous
Ductile
High
Small
Large
Continuous
with BUE
Ductile
Medium
High
Small
Discontinuous
Brittle
Low
High
Small
Chip Breakers
When carbide tipped tools are used for machining, because of
higher cutting speeds, due to high temperatures, the resulting chip
will be continuous, blue in colour and take the shape of a coil.
Such a chip, if not broken into parts and removed from the
surroundings of the metal cutting area, is likely to adversely effect
the machining results
1. It may adversely effect the tool life by spoiling the cutting edge,
creating crater and raising temperature
2.Its presence may lead to a poor surface finish on the workpiece
3.If the chip gets curled around the rotating workpiece and/or cutting tool,
it may be hazardous to the machine operator
4.If a large and continuous coil is allowed to be formed, it may engage
the entire machine and even the work place. It is quite dangerous
5.Very large coils offer a lot of difficulty in their removal
To prevent the adverse effects, chip breakers are used. These will break
the produced chips into small pieces
1.By control of tool geometry: Grinding proper back rake and side rake
according to the feeds and speeds to be used.
2.By obstruction method: By interposing a metallic obstruction in the path
of the coil
When a strict chip control is desired, some sort of chip breakers are used.
Step type
1.Groove type: Grinding a groove on the face of the tool, leaving small land
near the tip
2.Step type: Grinding a step on the face of the tool, adjacent to the cutting
edge
3.Secondary rake: Providing a secondary rake on the tool through
grinding, together with a small step
4.Clamp type: Very common with carbide tipped tools. Chip breaker is a
thin and small plate which is either brazed to or held mechanically on the
tool face
Groove type
Clamp type
Secondary rake
Cutting Models
Tool
workpiece
ORTHOGONAL GEOMETRY
Tool
workpiece
OBLIQUE GEOMETRY
Orthogonal cutting takes place when the cutting face of the tool is
90 degree to the line of action of the tool.
If the cutting face is inclined at an angle less than 90 degree to the
line of action of the tool, the cutting action is known as oblique.
Oblique
Orthogonal
Work
Feed
Feed
Tool
Orthogonal cutting
Orthogonal Cutting:
The cutting edge of the tool remains
normal to the direction of tool feed or
work feed.
The direction of the chip flow velocity is
normal to the cutting edge of the tool.
Here only two components of forces are
acting: Cutting Force and Thrust Force. So
the metal cutting may be considered as a
two dimensional cutting.
Examples are: Parting off operation,
Broaching, Sawing
Shear force acts on smaller area.
Tool
Oblique cutting
Oblique Cutting:
The cutting edge of the tool remains inclined at an
acute angle to the direction of tool feed or work
feed.
The direction of the chip flow velocity is at an angle
with the normal to the cutting edge of the tool. The
angle is known as chip flow angle.
Here three components of forces are acting: Cutting
Force, Radial force and Thrust Force or feed force.
So the metal cutting may be considered as a three
dimensional cutting.
The cutting edge being oblique, the shear force acts
on a larger area and thus tool life is increased.
Examples are lathe turning, drilling, milling,
shaping etc.,
Shear force acts on larger area
Cutting Forces
Shaping
Fc=Cutting force, acting in vertical plane and is tangential to the work surface, Also
called tangential force or tangential feed force
Ft=Ff = Feed force or thrust force or axial feed force, acting in horizontal plane parallel
to the work axis
Fr= Radial force or radial feed force, also acting in the horizontal plane but along the
radius of the work piece i.e along the axis of the tool.
Turning
Ft=Ff
Fc
Fr Radial
Force (6%)
Longitudinal F t
'Thrust' Force (27%)
'A'
'A'
CUTTING TOOL
DIRECTION OF FEED
Fc
Ft
Cutting forces
The largest magnitude is the vertical
force Fc which in turning is larger than
feed force Ff, and Ft is larger than radial
force Fr.
For orthogonal cutting system Fr is
made zero by placing the face of cutting
tool at 90 degree to the line of action of
the tool.
Ft
Velocity of
Tool relative to
workpiece V
F C Tangential Force
WORKPIECE
'Cutting' Force
Fr Radia l Force
Thrust Force
FL
Longitudina l Force
CUTTING TOOL
DIRECTION OF FEED
End view
'Turning' Terminology
Standard Terms
D
N
rpm
Workpiece
Tool
d mm
feed
(mm/rev)
Assumptions
(Orthogonal Cutting Model)
Orthogonal cutting with a well-defined shear plane, also known as the Merchant Model
Chip thickness
Velocity V
Rake
Angle
+
Chip
tool
Tool
depth of cut
t0
Shear Angle
Clearance Angle
Workpiece
Mechanism: Chips produced by the shearing process along the shear plane
The outward flow of the metal causes the chip to be thicker after the
separation from the parent metal.
That is the chip produced is thicker than the depth of cut.
Chip
Tool
Workpiece
10%
(Dependent on sharpness
of tool)
Experimental Determination of
Cutting Ratio
Shear angle may be obtained
either from photo-micrographs
(or) assume volume continuity
(no chip density change):
Lc
wc
tc
t0
w0
L0
Cutting Ratio
(or chip thicknes ratio)
Chip
a)
B
to
tool
tc
Workpiece
to
tc
As Sin =
and Cos-a) =
AB
AB
t0
sin
Chip thickness ratio (r) = =
tc cos(a)
Shear Angle
or
How (
- )?
and vertical is x= 90 -
From triangle APB, angle A = 90 - +
t1
Chip thickness ration r = t
2
t1 h sin ,
So at B, 90-(90 - + )=
t2 h cos a )
t1
h sin
sin
r
1
sin
sin
r cos a
r sin a 1
tan
r cos a
tan
1 r sin a
P
C
Chip
tool
B
to
a)
tc
Workpiece
t0
Shear plane length AB =
sin
-1 rc osa
She ar pl ane angl e () = Tan
1-rsi na
Velocity Relationships
Velocity Relationships
Vf= Velocity of chip flow relative to tool, directed along the tool face= chip flow velocity
Vc=Velocity of tool relative to work = cutting velocity
Vs=Velocity of displacement of the chip along the shear plane relative to work directed
along the shear plane = velocity of shear
Velocity Relationships
Vf
Vs
c
Vc
Analytically,
vf
vc
vs
vf
vc
v
s
cos( a ) sin cos a
vc sin
vf
cos( a )
v f vc r
vs
vc cosa
cos( a )
sin
r
cos(
a
)
Vf 90-
a
d
90-
Vs
90
Vc
Velocity diagram
Vs= Velocity of shear along shear plane
Vf= Chip flow velocity along the tool face
( frictional velocity)
parallel to face of the tool
Vc=Cutting velocity
t2
t1
(a)
(b)
Fs
R
Fn
Equilibrium of Chip
Cutting Forces
(2D Orthogonal Cutting)
we know:
Tool geometry & type of
Workpiece material
Chip
Tool
Fn
Fs
R
R
Workpiece
N
Fc
Ft
Dynamometer
Fc=
Ft =
F =
N =
Fs =
Fn=
Cutting Force
Thrust Force
Friction Force
Normal Force
Shear Force
Force Normal to Shear
Resultant Forces
Vector addition of F and N = resultant R
Vector addition of Fs and Fn = resultant R'
Forces acting on the chip must be in balance:
Coefficient of Friction
Coefficient of friction between tool and chip: m
F
N
m tan
R/ N F
R FS F N
It is assumed that the resultant forces R & Rare equal and opposite
in magnitude and direction.
Also they are Collinear. Therefore for the purpose of analysis the
chip is regarded as an independent body held in mechanical
equilibrium by the action of two equal and opposite forces R, which the
workpiece exerts upon the chip and R which the tool exerts upon the
chip.
The rake angle () can be measured from the tool, and forces F and
N can then be determined.
The shear angle () can be obtained from its relation with chip
reduction coefficient. Now Fs & Fn can also be determined.
Chip
Tool
Fs
Clearance Angle
Fc
( - )
Work
Fn
Ft
M. Eugene
Merchant
R Fc Ft
Chip
Fs
Fc
Work
R
Tool
Clearance Angle
Fn
Ft
Set up x-y axis labeled with forces, and the origin in the
centre of the page. The cutting force (Fc) is drawn
horizontally, and the tangential force (Ft) is drawn
vertically. (Draw in the resultant (R) of Fc and Ft.
Locate the centre of R, and draw a circle that encloses
vector R. If done correctly, the heads and tails of all 3
vectors will lie on this circle.
Draw in the cutting tool in the upper right hand quadrant,
taking care to draw the correct rake angle () from the
vertical axis.
Extend the line that is the cutting face of the tool (at the Ft
same rake angle) through the circle. This now gives the
friction vector (F).
A line can now be drawn from the head of the friction
vector, to the head of the resultant vector (R). This gives
the normal vector (N). Also add a friction angle ()
between vectors R and N. Therefore, mathematically, R =
Fc + Ft = F + N.
Draw a feed thickness line parallel to the horizontal axis.
Next draw a chip thickness line parallel to the tool cutting
face.
Draw a vector from the origin (tool point) towards the
intersection of the two chip lines, stopping at the circle.
The result will be a shear force vector (Fs). Also measure
the shear force angle between Fs and Fc.
Finally add the shear force normal (Fn) from the head of
Fs to the head of R.
Use a scale and protractor to measure off all distances
(forces) and angles.
CHIP
Fc
Fs
TOOL
WORK
Fn
R
F
Chip
Tool
Fs
Fc
Clearance
Angle
( - )
Wor
k
Fn
Ft
Relationship of various forces acting on the chip with the horizontal and
vertical cutting force from Merchant circle diagram
Frictional Force System
D
C
(90-)
E
(90-) G
Fn
Tool
Work
R
Ft
Clearance
Angle
( - )
( - )
Ft
Fc
Fc
Chip
Fs
N
N
A
F OA CB CG GB ED GB
F FC sina Ft cosa
N AB OD CD OD GE
N FC cosa Ft sina
Relationship of various forces acting on the chip with the horizontal and
vertical cutting force from Merchant circle diagram
Shear Force System
B
A
(90-)
Fc
Fs
Fc
Fn
R
Tool
Work
Ft
Clearance
Angle
( - )
(90-)
Ft
( - )
Fn D
Chip
Fs
FS OA OB AB OB CD
FS FC cos Ft sin
FN AE AD DE BC DE
FN FC sin Ft cos
Also:
FN FS tan( a )
Relationship of various forces acting on the chip with the horizontal and
vertical cutting force from Merchant circle diagram
Chip
Fs
Fc
Wor
k
Fn
R
Tool
Clearance
Angle
( - )
Ft
F FC sina Ft cos a
N FC cos a Ft sina
FS FC cos Ft sin
FN FC sin Ft cos
FN FS tan( a )
PC FC vC
Ps Fs vs
PF F v f
P Work consumedin cutting per sec work spent in feeding per sec
P Fc vc Ft feed velocity
In comparison to the cutting velocity the feed velocity is very nominal. Similarly Fc
is very small compared to Fc. So the work spent in feeding can be considered
negligible.
Therefore, total power required in cutting
P Pc Ps Pf
= (t1 / Sin ) w
= w t1/ Sin
Shear Area
C
B
Tool
t1A
O
Work
Specific Energy
Specific Energy, ut ,is defined as the total energy per unit volume of
material removed.
FC vc
FC
ut
wt 0 vc wt 0
Therefore is simply the cutting force to the projected area of cut.
If uf and us be specific energy for friction and specific energy for
shearing , then
Fv f
Fs vs
Fr Fs vs
ut u f us
1
( a )
4 2
M. Eugene Merchant
Fc
Fs
As
wt0
where, As
sin
Fc sec( a ) cos( a )
s
wt0
sin
Fc sec( a ) cos( a ) sin
s
wt0
Chip
Fs
Ft
Tool
Clearance
Angle
( - )
Fn
Work
R ( a )
They have assumed that adjusts itself to give minimum work. And for a given set of
cutting condition, to, w and are all constants. They also assumed that is
independent of .
tan( a ) cot
a p
Tool
Wor
k
Fn
R
Ft
Clearance
Angle
( - )
dy
0
d
sin( a ) sin cos( a ) cos
tan( a ) tan(p
Chip
Fs
1
( a )
2
s 0 k n (1)
Slope
k
n s tan( a ) (2)
Fc
Tool
Wor
k
Fn
0
s
(3)
1 k tan( a )
F sec( a ) cos( a ) sin
We Know, s c
(4)
From equation (3) and (4), we get Fc
( - )
w t0
Chip
Fs
Ft
w t0 cos( a )
cos( a ) sin 1 k tan( a )
cos(2 a ) k sin(2 a )
cot(2 a ) k
2 a cot1 k C
2 a C
where C is machining constant
Fs
As
Fn
As
Fs v s
s
t0 w vc
Fs v s
s t0 w vc
Fs v s
Fs
t0 w vc
As
Fs v s
Fs
t0 w vc
t0 w
sin
v
1
s
v c sin
But
vs
cosa
, therefore
v c cos( a )
cosa
cos( a ) sin
BE
BE
/
AE A / E
BE
BE
A / BE 90 ( 90 ) a a
cot tan( a )
cos sin( a )
sin cos( a )
cos( a )
sin cos( a )
cos a
sin cos( a )
Chip
D/
C
Work
(-)
A/
Tool
(90-)
Shearing of chip
It is convenient to determine
various force and angles.
: Rack angle
: Frictional angle
: Shear angle
F: Frictional Force
Ft : Thrust Force
V: Feed velocity
Fs
Fn
Fc
Ft
F
N
Front View
RAKE ANGLE
Back Rake Angle: It is the angle
between the face of the tool and
measured in a plane perpendicular
to the side cutting edge
Side Rake Angle: It is the angle
between the face of the tool and
measured in a plane perpendicular
to the base
Friction Force
Resisting force acted at the tool
workpiece interface to resist the
motion of tool.
Cutting Force
Force acted along the velocity of
tool
Fs
Fn
Fc
Ft
F
N
N
R
P
F
Frictional Angle
It is the angle between the
resultant ,of the Frictional Force &
Normal
Force,
and
Normal
Reaction.
-1
= tan
: coefficient of friction
Fs
Fn
Fc
Ft
R
F
N
Fs
Tool
Fc
a
F
n
F
t
a
R
a
F
a
Fs
Tool
Fc
a
F
n
F
t
a
R
a
F
a
Fs
Fn
On Shear plane,
Fc
Ft
Now,
R
F
N
and
Fn
Fc
Ft
R
F
Where,
Fs
Fn
Fc
The average stresses on the
shear plane area are:
Ft
R
F
Results from
Force Circle Diagram
(Merchant's Circle)
Friction Force F = Fcsina + Ftcosa
Normal Force N = Fccosa - Ftsina
m = F/N and m = tan typically 0.5 - 2.0)
Stresses
On the Shear plane:
Fn
Fnsin
Normal Stress = s = Normal Force / Area =
=
AB w
tow
Fs
Fssin
Shear Stress = s = Shear Force / Area =
=
AB w
tow
Note: s = y = yield strength of the material in shear
F
tc w
Shear Strain
Orthogonal Cutting
r
to
ls sin
tc ls cos( a )
r cos a
tan
1 r sin a
AC AD DC
tan( a ) cot
BD
BD
Power
Power (or energy consumed per unit time) is the product of
force and velocity. Power at the cutting spindle:
Cutting Power Pc = FcV
Power is dissipated mainly in the shear zone and on the rake
face:
Power for Shearing Ps = FsVs
Friction Power Pf = FVc
Volume Removed
Time
Lwto
Therefore, MRR =
= Vwto
L/V
MRR = Cutting velocity x width of cut x depth of cut
Energy
Energy per unit time
=
Volume Removed Volume Removed per unit time
FVc
Fr
Specific Energy for friction Uf =
=
Vwto
wto
2.
3.
4.
Energy
Energy per unit time
=
Volume Removed Volume Removed per unit time
FVc
Fr
Specific Energy for friction Uf =
=
Vwto
wto