Chapter 6: Standards of Length

Overview:
Introduction to the
basic principles and
concepts
Gauge blocks
Measurement Errors

Mitutoyo Steel Square Gage Block Set, ASME

Grade 0, Inch (Image source: Amazon)
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Introduction
For a workshop to create a product with
satisfactory dimensions, there has to be
measurement of its dimensions.
Thus, the operation of a workshop must
include some knowledge of metrology, which
is the science of measurement.
Specifically, a subset of metrology called
engineering metrology.
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Introduction
Engineering metrology concerns (but not just)
measurement of dimensions. Dimensions include:
Length (scope
of chapter)
Thickness
Diameter
Taper
Angle

A length measuring tool can measure

thickness and diameters too.
(Image source: Craftman Space)

Introduction
The practice of metrology/measurement involves
precise measurements through the use of
instruments and any necessary adjustments to
obtain the degree of accuracy required.
Layman explanation:
The act of measurement is the use of the most
appropriate instrument to make the measurement
with, e.g. tape rulers for straight lines.
The instrument must be applied correctly for a
reliable reading, e.g. the tape ruler has to be secured
at the ends of the lines.
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Introduction
The practice of metrology/measurement also
involves industrial inspections.
An inspection is the checking of a product at
various stages in its manufacturing, from when it
is still raw material, up to when it is finished.
If the product is part of a bigger assembly, the
assembly is also inspected.
To check whether all parts have come together
properly.
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Introduction
When this practice is applied on workshops,
products made in a workshop must have their
dimensions checked regularly in order to discover
any problems with workshop equipment or
procedures.
For example, if something cut by a cutting tool
has dimensions which are off target when
measured, something may be wrong with the
cutting tool.
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Main Objectives of Measurement

The main purposes of measurement, with regard
to operation of a workshop, are to:
Maintain quality production
Maintain reliability of production.
The following slides break this purpose down
into practical objectives.

Objectives of Measurement
Obtain measurements at required accuracies
and as efficiently as possible.
E.g. use stiff measurement tools to measure
stiff, long parts.

Easier alternative phrase: efficient and effective use of

measurement methods
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Objectives of Measurement
Evaluating newly developed products, in
order to ensure that their components are
within the process limits and measuring
instrument capabilities of the plant
In simpler words, the measurements are to
prove that the product is made correctly
within the workshop and with its resources.
If the measurements have unexpected
accuracies, the product may have been
tampered, or equipment might be faulty.
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Objectives of Measurement
To ensure that the production process create
components and products within their relevant
tolerances
In other words, ensure that the product/output
is within desired specifications.

Wheel alignment specs for old cars in ranges of degrees & lengths.
Source: Automotive Repair Guides, Blogspot
10

Objectives of Measurement
To ensure that instruments are adequate for
their respective measurements.
Example: A workshop may use rulers extensively
to measure its products, but there may be a few
special cases where another instrument may be
more useful, e.g. a caliper is more appropriate to
measure the inside diameter of a tube from within
the tube than at its ends.
11

A ruler could be used to measure the internal diameter by pressing

the ruler against the end of this component, but a caliper gives a
more reliable reading.
(Image source: Wonkee Donkee Tools, UK)
12

Objectives of Measurement
To reduce number of rejects and rework
through statistical quality control.
Measurements provide hard data on the outcome
of the production process.
This hard data can be analyzed statistically to
figure out the cause of problems.
E.g. occasional cases of dimensions out of
acceptable tolerances may suggest onset of
tool failure.
13

Measurement is an important component of quality

control cycles, such as 6-Sigma.
(Image source: Revelle Training)
14

(Other) Objectives of Measurement

These other objectives are not directly associated
with the quality and reliability of production.
Instead, they contribute to the reliability of the
act of measurement itself.
(More reliable measurement is always good.)

15

(Other) Objectives of Measurement

Standardization of measuring methods for a
production process.
This is usually done in the planning and
organizing phase of production.
Incomplete and complete prototypes/replicas of
the product are fabricated so as to be subjected to
measurement with various methods and tools.
The most convenient and reliable method/tool of
measurement is selected as the as the standard for
the production process.
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(Other) Objectives of Measurement

Maintenance/Troubleshooting of measurement
tools
Measurement tools are generally regularly
calibrated.
The act of calibration usually involves taking
measurements of objects with standardized
dimensions.
When troubleshooting faulty measurement tools,
Measurements are taken to estimate progress
towards fixing the tools, e.g. improved accuracy
after a repair solution means that the solution has
been effective.

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To continuously achieve all of the objectives

above, there must be standards for measurement.
Achievement of these standards is defined by:
Precision
Accuracy
Of the measurements.
The practical nature of the precision and
accuracy of measurements depends on the
dimension which is being measured.
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Concept of Precision
Precision is the repeatability of a
measurement method/tool.
The precision of a measurement method/tool is
synonymous with its reliability.
Signs of reliable measurements:
Consistent readings
NOTE: Consistent readings do not
necessarily indicate good accuracy.
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Concept of Precision
Examples of unreliable measurement:
If a measurement tool gives slightly
inconsistent readings, either the tool is
damaged, or there is interference from the
environment.
If a measurement method gives completely
random readings, the method has failed to
take into consideration external factors which
affect the readings.
20

Faded print on the scales of a ruler makes its precision

questionable.
(Image source: Walke Moore Tools)
21

Concept of Accuracy
Accuracy is the ability of a measurement
method/tool to provide readings close to the true
value of a measured quantity.

Accuracy is assured when:

The measurement method/tool gives the
correct reading when used to measure an
object with standardized dimensions.
E.g. a tape ruler is accurate if it can
correctly measure a gauge block.
22

Precision vs. Accuracy

A measurement method/tool can be precise, but not
necessarily accurate. Inaccuracy can be caused by:
Lack of calibration of tools.
Problems with the subject of measurement.
Environmental factors.

Example: The shaking of worktables in

workshops (usually due to bumping or vibration
from nearby machines) make length
measurements of parts on the worktables
inaccurate.
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Precision vs. Accuracy

A measurement method/tool cannot be: accurate
but not precise.
Precision is a requirement for accuracy.

A measurement method/tool can give readings

which change from attempt to attempt.
This is usually due to instability in the subject
of measurement.
In this case, it is best to consider another
method/tool of measurement.

24

In a workshop environment, it is unlikely that a

subject of measurement would be unstable.
This is because most objects which are
measured are made of tough solids, such as
metal or wood.
If there are very different readings from the same
object, this means that:
The measurement tool may be faulty, or
The tool or object has not been set up
properly.
If this occurs, please notify the workshop staff or
any supervisor/instructor.

25

In a workshop environment, a relatively clear (and flat)

table is suitable and safe for precise and accurate
length measurements.
(Image source: Hisia Furniture)

26

Standards
Earlier slides have mentioned objects such as gauge
blocks.
These objects are physical representations of the notion
of standards.

As a word, standard has a lot of meanings. For

this subject, the scope of this word is restricted
to:
Scientific standards
Practiced standards based on scientific
standards.
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Scientific Standards
In metrology, a standard is an object which define
a unit of measurement of a physical quantity.
A standard is generally agreed upon by
established organizations with long histories
and vast knowledge of metrology, e.g.
International Bureau of Weights and Measures.
(This link opens a webpage.)

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Scientific Standards
Standards are not unanimously agreed upon:
For example, Commonwealth nations and other
former colonies generally use the S.I. system of
standards,
However, some nations use the Imperial
(English) system.
On the other hand, unanimous agreement is not
needed to validate any system of standards.
Instead, any system of standards must be
validated by scientific reasons.
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Scientific Standards
Usually, these scientific reasons involve
chemically and physically stable materials.
For example, the S.I. system defines the metre as
a portion of the length of distance travelled by
light in vacuum.
The metres physical representation is the
Historical International Prototype Metre Bar,
which is made from a very wear-resistant alloy
of platinum and iridium.
30

The prototype metre bar preceded the invention of gauge

blocks.
(Image source: National Institute of Standards and
Technology, USA)
31

Practiced Standards
Practiced standards are custom-designed
systems of standards which are implemented in
industries and other private or public endeavours.

They are based on from scientific standards.

These practiced standards are also called
standards, for convenience.
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Need for Standards

Standards promote economic and quality production
by providing technical criteria accepted by consensus.
Standards gives confidence to manufacturers and
consumers who contribute to this consensus.

In other words, standards are convenient

references for knowledge of units of measurement
in cost-efficient production.
33

Aims of Standards
Make industrial, economic and scientific
communication easier.
When manufacturers, regulators, engineers,
researchers and consumers use the same system
of standards, less time is spent on unit
conversions.

Contribute to economic expenditure of

resources.
Making use of standards makes it easier to
coordinate the use of resources.
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Aims of Standards
Protect consumer interests.
Consumers who are informed about
standards are more capable of estimating the
quality and consistency of goods and services
than those who are not.
(Indirectly) promote safety, health and protection
of the environment.
For example, keeping to standards prevents
wastage; wastage leads to safety, health and
environmental problems, so reducing it is good.
35

Aims of Standards
Encouraging trade and the removal of trade
barriers between trade parties, e.g. countries,
which practice the same standards.
If the previous aims of standards are
achieved, the achievement of this standard is
made easier.

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Gauge blocks have to be designed according to proven

standards, such as ISO 3650.
(Image source: ISO 3650 documentation, 1998)
37

Gauge Blocks
Gauge blocks are physical representations of
practiced standards of length.
Gauge blocks are used for producing precise
lengths.
Therefore, gauge blocks often come in a set.

In a workshop environment, gauge blocks are

not versatile but are easy to use.
38

Gauge Blocks
Individual gauge blocks are generally made of
tough hard-wearing metal or ceramic, or a
composite of both.
The dimensions of
gauge blocks must be
maintained.

Gauge blocks of the same

set are usually made of the
same material.

Another set of Mitutuyo brand gauge

blocks.
39

Gauge Blocks
Gauge blocks are fabricated according to specified
lengths/dimensions, and must maintain these for as
long as possible for them to remain useful.

Hence the use of hard-wearing materials.

Gauge blocks are generally subjected to a lot
of handling, either by human hands, or by
machines.
Therefore, their materials have to be tough too.
40

Looks of Gauge Blocks

Gauge blocks look like blocks of metal material.
In a workshop environment, they can be
mistaken as other things such as raw workpieces.
However, they have the following details:
Stamping of product codes.
Generally precise shapes.
Polished surfaces if the blocks are not too old.
Have oil on them.
41

Gauge Blocks vs. Other Tools

There are considerable differences between
gauge blocks and other measurement tools.
The most significant are:
Gauge blocks cannot be recalibrated, because they do
not have devices which convert physical input into
visual output.
Gauge blocks are not multi-purpose, e.g. each gauge
block represents only one length of specific
magnitude and does nothing else.

42

Gauge Blocks in the Workshop

In a workshop environment, gauge blocks are
used to:
Calibrate measuring instruments (such as
micrometers).
Set up precise and accurate angles (usually
with sine bars as well).
Position machine tool components.
(continued in next page)

43

Gauge Blocks in the Workshop

(continued from previous page)

Set comparators, dial indicators, and height

gauges to exact dimensions (e.g. helping some
other device measure something).
Inspect the accuracy of finished parts.
If the parts are designed with the gauge
blocks being used as templates, the gauge
blocks can be used again to check the parts.

44

Materials for Gauge Blocks

Examples of tough and hard-wearing materials
for gauge blocks include:
Cemented carbides: wear-resistant, but not as tough
as other materials.
It is used for gauge blocks which are designed
for calibration. The wear resistance helps
maintain precision.
Hardened steel alloy: not as wear-resistant as
carbides, but tougher.
Gauge blocks of this material are used to
position machine components or used as
templates.
45

Cemented carbide blocks do not last forever; notice the

chipped 1-inch block. Their stamps can also fade.
(Image Source: YourToolingStore.com, used products)
46

Other Materials for Gauge Blocks

Other materials are used when cost is not the
biggest factor.
Examples of other materials include:
Zirconium composites: desired for their low
thermal expansion coefficients.
Useful for high-temperature environments.
High temperatures cause other gauge blocks to
expand and lose their accuracy.
47

Surfaces of Gauge Blocks

In the workshop, gauge blocks come into contact
with many things, including hard, rough and/or
sharp surfaces.
Therefore, their surfaces are treated, ground
and polished to exact dimensions, and for
additional wear resistance and hardness.
The polishing also makes it easier to know
how old or how well-kept a gauge block is.

48

Safety of Gauge Blocks

On their own, gauge blocks are relatively safe to
use. However:
Do not use gauge blocks for anything other
than their intended use.
They are hard, so they can pose a hazard.
Gauge blocks are made of materials which
are not entirely safe to humans.
Wash hands thoroughly after workshop
sessions.
49

Gauge Block Sets

As mentioned earlier, gauge blocks often come in
sets, usually in a case with slots which fit all
blocks.

Gauge blocks in a set usually use the same set of

standards for their lengths,
Either the S.I. system
Or the Imperial system.

50

Gauge Block Sets

Gauge blocks of the same set are generally
arranged in size steps.
For example, gauge blocks in S.I. may have
step increases of 0.5 cm, 1 cm, 1.5 cm, etc.
The step sizes are not uniform.
(The containers for gauge block sets have to be
designed together with the gauge blocks, so the
step sizes are selected such that the gauge blocks
can fit into the container.)
51

Gauge Block Wringing

Gauge blocks are smooth to the touch.
However, on the microscopic level, they have a
rough but uniform surface
This allows gauge blocks from the same set to be
stacked onto each other on their flat surfaces.
They stick to each other due to the friction
between their surfaces.
This act is also called wringing.
This is because a twisting motion is usually
involved.
52

Gauge blocks of the same set can be stacked onto each

other through wringing in case a big block does not
suffice.
(Image Source: Clarence Leon Goodrich & Frank Arthur
Stanley (1907) Accurate Tool Work, McGraw-Hill, New
York, p.185, fig.196)

53

Maintaining Gauge Blocks

The accuracy and precision of gauge blocks can
be eroded by wear-and-tear from usage.
Therefore, the maintenance of gauge blocks
generally include the following precautions:
1. Prevent gauge blocks from damage.
Do not cause them to drop from any height.
Avoid having the gauge blocks from
coming into contact with sharp edges,
including the edges of other gauge blocks.
54

Maintaining Gauge Blocks

2. Keep the gauge blocks in their cases when
they are not being used.
Clean and oil the gauge blocks before
keeping them in their cases.
If the gauge blocks have been subjected to
hot or cold environments, let them return to
original temperature before keeping them.
Observe and follow the spacing for the
gauge blocks in the case.
55

Maintaining Gauge Blocks

3. When they are not in use but are not to be
returned to the case yet, keep them away from
other hard objects.
Do not stack gauge blocks onto each other
unless they are to be used in this manner.
Have some space on the
workstation/worktable to place the gauge
blocks on.
56

Errors
As a reminder, error, is not defined as a mistake
in metrology, but rather
Error is the difference between the measured
value of a quantity and the true value of the
quantity.
Errors are not always undesirable.
Investigative research on the causes of errors can
yield useful knowledge, e.g. for improvement of
the measurement method.
57

Categories of Errors
There are generally two categories of errors,
according to their causes:
Human errors: causes for these errors include
but are not limited to lack of skill in use and
handling, poor work attitude/lapse of
concentration and bias caused by personal
accuracy achievements on the part of the person
making the measurement.
These can be mitigated with proper training,
practice of discipline and strong grasp of
professional ethics, respectively.
58

Categories of Errors
Environmental errors: causes for these errors
are due to factors in the surroundings, e.g. the
workplace, such as
Changes in temperature due to heating from
harsh lighting, sunlight, and proximity to hot
machines
Vibrations from nearby heavy machinery (e.g.
other workshop machines)
If environmental errors are significant, the
workplace may have to be rearranged to
remove the causes.
59

Common Human Errors

Misreading:
This is usually due to lack of attention.
The user may also be tired.
Rarely, onset of health issues.

Poor preparation:
For example, the wrong settings had been
selected when preparing a measurement tool.
Generally due to lack of attention.
These can be overcome with implementation of
checking regimes.

60

Common Human Errors

Miscalculation
This can happen if the desired measurement is
manually derived from other measurements.
For example, an angle is to be obtained by
measuring lengths and then using
trigonometry to calculate the angle.
This is generally due to lack of attention or lack
of competence of the person.
These can be prevented by having a measurement
tool or method make measurements directly.
61

Common Human Errors

Parallax:

(Image Source: ChemWiki)

62

Parallax in the Workshop

Cause of parallax is usually:

Misalignment of subject of measurement and

worktables, e.g. the subject is placed on a surface
such that the subject is not perpendicular to the
operators eyes.
The subject of measurement may have to be
placed elsewhere, if space permits.
Otherwise, corrections have to be applied to the
measurement after finding errors from
measuring gauge blocks.
63

Environmental Errors
Thermal expansion due to temperature change
Usually, the workshop environment is not
expected to have considerable temperature
changes.
However, harsh sunlight or lamps can heat a
subject of measurement or a measurement tool.
The heating causes expansion.
E.g. gauge blocks may expand by micrometers
when they heat up by a few degrees Celsius.
This is an issue if very high accuracy is desired.
64

Other Causes of Errors

The subject of measurement or measuring tool
may not have been prepared for measurement.
For example, to measure the length of a part with
a ruler, the part should be clean before coming
into contact with the ruler.
Otherwise, substances which dirty the part
such as oil and grime will dirty the ruler as
well.

65

This is a ruler
which has been
designed to be
deliberately
warped, so that it
can be picked up
by users with
arthritis problems
in their hands. It
can be flattened
when it is used to
make
measurements.
(Image Source:
DeZeen
Magazine)
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END OF CHAPTER

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