1) Receptors (10 Properties) & sensation

2) Physiology of Pain
3) Synapse & Reflex (10 Properties)

4) Tracts (3 sensory & 2 motor)

5) Spinal cord (complete & incomplete
transaction)

Nervous system (NS)

a) Introduction of NS

b) Functions of NS
c) Divisions of NS
d) Structure & histology of NS

Nervous system (NS)

a) Introductionmajor controller/ regulator/ administrator/
integrator of body. quicker than endocrine

b) functions1)
2)
3)
4)

sensory (collect and understand information),

motor (response)
higher (memory, learning, thinking, speech)
Limbic (emotions and behavior)

c) division-NS is made ofCNS (central NS) & PNS (peripheral NS)

-PNS is subdivided into
sensory axis & motor axis
-parts of motor axis are
somatic NS (skeletal) & autonomic NS (viscera)

-CNS is made of - brain & spinal cord

-Parts of brain are
- 2 cerebral hemisphere
- thalamus , hypothalamus (diencephalons)
- brain stem (midbrain + pons & medulla) and
Cerebellum

cell body of neurons lie in gray matter (CNS) &

ganglia (PNS).
white matter contain fibers of neurons

Outer 3 mm layer of C. hemisphere is grey matter

(called C cortex) contain cell body of neurons.

While inner part

is white matter.
(nerve fibers)

In white matter
many grey
matter nuclei are
scattered

Frontal lobe

Parietal lobe

motor control + HF

Somatic sensation + HF

Temporal lobe

Occipital lobe

Hearing + HF

Vision + HF

1) Receptors (10 Properties) & sensation

2) Physiology of Pain
3) Synapse & Reflex (10 Properties)

4) Tracts (3 sensory & 2 motor)

5) Spinal cord (complete & incomplete
transaction)

Receptors
a) Definition
b) Histology
c) Classification (based on to source / type of
stimulus)
d) Mechanism (receptor potential, AP)
e) Properties

Properties of Receptors1.) Differential sensitivity or Specificity

2.) Electrical properties- receptor potential
3.) Sensory transduction
4.) Adaptation of Receptors
5.) Recruitment
6.) Labeled Line Principle
7.) Law of Projection
8.) Lateral inhibition
9.) Mullers law of specific nerve energy
10.) Discrimination of strength of stimulus

a) DefinitionReceptors are biological transducers, which

convert stimulus energy (mechanical
/chemical / thermal / photic / other) into action
potential (electrical energy) & send to N.S.
Receptors are the sites which detect sensory
stimuli (environmental changes or internal
body changes), code these in form of action
potential & send to N.S.

b) histology
modified unmyelinated afferent endings /
specialized & separate receptor cells.

c) Classificationi) Based on type of stimulus energy1) Mechanoreceptors-

Ex.- Tectile receptors

2) Electro Magnetic or photo receptor- Ex.- rods

and cones

3) Chemoreceptors- Ex.- Taste buds (Taste),

Olfactory epithelium (Smell)
4) Thermo receptors- Ex.- warm & cold receptors
5) Nociceptor- detect damage to tissue by
physical or chemical stimuli. (pain)

c) Classificationi) based on type of stimulus energy1) Mechanoreceptors- detect mechanical deformity

in receptor near by cell
2) Chemoreceptors- detect chemical changes
3) Electro Magnetic or photo receptor- detect light
on retina- rods and cones
4) Nociceptor- detect damage to tissue by physical
or chemical stimuli.
5) Thermo receptors- detect temperature change
-Heat & warm- organ of golgi, mazoni & Raffini.
-Cold- end bulb of krause

ii) based on to source of stimulus1) Tele receptors

these respond even when stimuli are away from
the body (like vision, hearing ect.)
2) Exteroceptorsthese respond even when stimuli are on the
surface of the body (like tactile receptors.)
3) Interceptorsthese respond even when stimuli are inside the
surface of the body. These area) proprioceptors (stimuli on at muscle, joints)
b) viscero receptors (s. on viscera)

b) Classification of sensations
1. General sensations
i) Exteroceptive sensations: e.g. touch, pain,
temperature, pressure, vibration etc. Receptors are
located in skin or mucous membrane.

ii) proprioceptive sensations: e.g. sensations of

joints, muscles or tendons. Receptors are located in
deeper body tissues.

iii) Visceroceptive senses: e.g. pain from visceral

structures,

2. Special sensations
i) Vision, ii) Audition, iii) Taste/Gustatory, iv) Smell/
Olfactory, v) Equilibrium.

Mechanoreceptor:-Tactile receptors (touch)

-Hair cells of organ of corti in cochlea (Hearing)
-Vestibular receptors- macula in utricle and
saccule / crista ampullaris in semicircular canal
(Equilibrium)
-Baroreceptors of carotid sinuses & aortic sinus
(B.P.)
Chemoreceptor:-Taste buds (Taste)
-Olfactory epithelium (Smell)

Tactile / cutaneous receptors

1) Meissners corpuscles
(A-beta, Ad- fast)

2) Merkels discs
(A-delta & C, Ad- slow)

fine touch + low frequency

vibration

continuous touch (shape,

texture)

Tactile / cutaneous receptors

1) Meissners corpuscles
(A-beta, Ad- fast)

2) Merkels discs

fine touch + low frequency

vibration

continuous touch

(A-delta & C, Ad- slow)

3) Pacinian corpuscles
(A-beta, Ad- fastest)

4) Ruffinis end organs

(A-delta & C, Ad- slow)

deep pressure + high

frequency vibration
continuous deep pressure

Tactile / cutaneous receptors

1) Meissners corpuscles
(A-beta, Ad- fast)

2) Merkels discs

fine touch + low frequency

vibration
continuous touch

(A-delta & C, Ad- slow)

3) Pacinian corpuscles
(A-beta, Ad- fastest)

4) Ruffinis end organs

deep pressure + high

frequency vibration
continuous deep pressure

(A-delta & C, Ad- slow)

(A-beta, Ad- fast)

movement of objects on the

surface of the body.

6) Free nerve endings

Pain (damage to body cells)

5) Hair end organs.

(A-delta & C, Ad- slow).

Proprioceptors or kinesthetic receptors

Are the receptors that lie at or near muscle, joints &
respond to the change in position of body parts. These
are slowly adopting receptors. Ex.-

1) Muscle spindle- detect muscle length (elicit stretch

reflex)

2) Golgi tendon organ- detect muscle tension or force

(elicit Golgi tendon or inverse stretch reflex)

3) Pacinian corpuscles- detect joint position

4) Ruffinis end organs- detect joint rotation
5) Free nerve endings- sense pain in muscle, joint &
fascia

-if stimulus is applied, membrane potential of

receptor changes.
-This change in membrane potential is called
receptor potential. When receptor potential rises
above the firing threshold level (10-11mv)
-AP is generated in the afferent nerve. Ex.Pacinian corpuscle

Pacinian corpuscle

-Observations:1) If capsule is removed still AP & RP develops.

2) If 1st node of Ranvier blocked by pressure RP
develop but AP not
3) When sensory nerve is cut & unmyelinated
nerve terminal is allowed to degenerate
neither RP nor AP develops.
4) Na+ depletion cause decrease in receptor
potential (calcium- is 2nd important ion)

4.) Adaptation of ReceptorsWhen same strength of stimulus is constantly applied to

the receptor, frequency of AP declines over time.

i) Tonic or slow A. R.- proprio R. & free nerve ending

(Protective value)

ii) Phasic or fast A. R.- pacinian & meissners

corpuscles (Predictive value)

MechanismRedistribution of
fluid in capsule

For a specific sensation

1) There are specific receptors

Specificity
2) There are specific sensory nerves-

Labeled Line Principle

3) There is specific cortical area

Mullers law

Properties of Receptors1.) Differential sensitivity or Specificity

2.)
3.)
4.)
5.)
6.) Labeled Line Principle
7.)
8.)
9.) Mullers law of specific nerve energy, 10.)

As strength of stimulus is increased-More number of receptors stimulated- Recruitment

-More number of nerves will carry information
-Each nerve will carry more no. of APs

Properties of Receptors1.) Differential sensitivity or Specificity

2.)
3.)
4.)
5.) Recruitment
6.) Labeled Line Principle
7.)
8.)
9.) Mullers law of specific nerve energy
10.) Discrimination of strength of stimulus

Properties of Receptors1.) Differential sensitivity or Specificity

2.) Electrical properties- receptor potential
3.) Sensory transduction
4.) Adaptation of Receptors
5.) Recruitment

6.) Labeled Line Principle

7.) Law of Projection
8.) Lateral inhibition
9.) Mullers law of specific nerve energy
10.) Discrimination of strength of stimulus

Properties of Receptors1.) Differential sensitivity or Specificity

2.) Electrical properties- receptor potential
3.) Sensory transduction
4.) Adaptation of Receptors
5.) Recruitment
6.) Labeled Line Principle
7.) Law of Projection
8.) Lateral inhibition
9.) Mullers law of specific nerve energy
10.) Discrimination of strength of stimulus

Properties of Receptors1.) Differential sensitivity or Specificity

2.) Electrical properties- receptor potential
3.) Sensory transduction
4.) Adaptation of Receptors
5.) Recruitment
6.) Labeled Line Principle
7.) Law of Projection
8.) Lateral inhibition
9.) Mullers law of specific nerve energy
10.) Discrimination of strength of stimulus

1.) Differential sensitivity or Specificityspecific receptor is highly sensitive to one specific

type stimulus.

2.) Electrical properties- receptor potential

if stimulus is applied, membrane potential of
receptor changes.
This change in membrane potential is called
receptor potential.
When receptor potential rises above the firing
threshold level (normally 10-11mv)
AP is generated in the afferent nerve.

Pacinian corpuscle

-Observations:1) If capsule is removed still AP & RP develops.

2) If 1st node of Ranvier blocked by pressure RP
develop but AP not

3) When sensory nerve is cut & unmyelinated

nerve terminal is allowed to degenerate 1 to
RP, 1 to AP
4) Na+ depletion cause decrease in receptor
potential (calcium- is 2nd important ion)

3.) Sensory transductionReceptors are biological transducers, which

convert stimulus energy (mechanical /chemical
/ thermal / photic / other) into action potential
(electrical energy) and send to nervous
system.
Receptors are the sites which detect sensory
stimuli (environmental changes or internal
body changes), code these in form of action
potential & send to N.S.

4.) Adaptation of ReceptorsWhen same strength of stimulus is constantly

applied to the receptor, frequency of AP
declines over time.
i) tonic or slow A. R.- proprio R. & free nerve
ending
ii) phasic or fast A. R.- pacinian & meissners
corpuscles

5.) RecruitmentAs the strength of stimulus is increased, more &

more number of receptors are stimulated.

As strength of stimulus is increased-More number of receptors stimulated- Recruitment

-More number of nerves will carry information
-Each nerve will carry more no. of APs

6.) Labeled Line PrincipleSpecific of nerve fibers transmit only one specific
type of sensation

7.) Law of ProjectionNo matter where or how a sensory pathway is

stimulated along its course from receptor to
sensory cortex , the conscious sensation is felt at
the site of the receptor. Ex- Phantom limb

8.) Lateral inhibition

one sensory pathway may inhibit other pathway
example- pain pathway is inhibited by touch
pathway.

No matter where or how a sensory pathway is

stimulated along its course from receptor to
cortex.
Specific sensation will be felt (depends on
receptor & area of the c. cortex stimulated)

Mullers law of specific nerve energy&

that sensation is referred (or felt) at the site of the
receptor.

Law of Projection

Lateral
inhibition

- Localize the
stimulus

- Increase
contrast

Pain pathway is inhibited by touch pathway.

9.) Mullers law of specific nerve energyNo matter where or how a sensory pathway is
stimulated along its course from receptor to
cortex, Sensation felt will be for which
receptors are specialized, depending on area
of the c. cortex stimulated, Ex.-

10.) Discrimination of strength of stimulusAs strength of stimulus is increased number of

receptors /afferent nerves stimulated &
frequency of AP is increases.

i)

Weber Fechner Law-

ii) Power law-

Weber Fechner Law-

Power law-

Weber Fechner Law-

Power law-

10.) Discrimination of strength of stimulusAs strength of stimulus is increased number of

receptors /afferent nerves stimulated &
frequency of AP is increases.
i)

Weber Fechner Law- the sensation felt is

proportional to log of intensity of stimulus.

ii) Power law- the sensation felt is proportional to

some power of intensity of stimulus

No matter where or how a sensory pathway is

stimulated along its course from receptor to
cortex.
+
Specific sensation will be felt (depends on
receptor & area of the c. cortex stimulated)

Mullers law of specific nerve energy&

+
that sensation is referred (or felt) at the site of the
receptor.

Law of Projection

1 Properties of Receptors-

2 Discrimination of strength of stimulus

Specificity-

Laws

As strength of stimulus is increased-

-More number of receptors stimulated- Recruitment

-More number of nerves will carry information
-Each nerve will carry more no. of APs

a)

Definition of sensations
Feeling arise by change in the internal &
external environment of the receptor.
Through the sensations person becomes
aware of the body & surroundings.

b)

Classification of sensations

c)

Details of tactile, temperature and pain

sensation

b)

Classification of sensations
1. General sensations
i) Superficial or cutaneous senses: e.g. touch, pain,
temperature, pressure, vibration etc. Receptors are
located in skin or mucous membrane.
ii) Deep senses: e.g. sensations of joints, muscles or
tendons. Receptors are located in deeper body
tissues.
iii) Visceral senses: e.g. pain from visceral structures,

2. Special sensations
i) Vision, ii) Audition, iii) Gustatory, iv) Olfactory, v)
Equilibrium.

Thermal sensation
-These are temperature receptors which respond to warm
(hot) or cold sensations of the tissues which immediately
surround them.
-They are found on chest, nose, nipples, anterior surface of
arm, forearm, abdomen etc.
-There are 4-5 times more cold receptors than warm
receptors.
-Supplied by A-delta and type C nerve fibers ,receptors
adapt to a great extent but almost nerve adapt to 100%.
- If the tissue temperature is raised beyond 45 degree C,
the cold receptors discharge at an increasing rate
producing a mixed sensation of cold and pain. This is
called paradoxical cold fiber discharge.

a)

Definition of pain

b) Physiology of pain (properties & reaction)

c)

Types of pain (somatic- fast/slow,muscular or visceral)

d) Pain pathway
e)

Visceral pain & Referred Pain

f)

Analgesic or pain control system of brain & spinal cord

g) Clinical

a) Definition of pain
Pain sensation is unpleasant but protective sensation
aroused by noxious stimuli that damage or can damage
body tissues.

b) Physiology of pain (properties and reaction)

Purpose or importance- Protective
Stimulus- noxious (chemicals like- Ach, bradykinin,
serotonin, H,K, PGs or mechanical or thermal)
Receptors- free nerve endings (polymodal receptors)
Adaptation- non or slow adopting receptors
Nerve fibers- fast pain is carried by A-delta nerve fibers
while slow pain by C type.

Neurotransmitters- glutamic acid (at spinal cord) for fast

pain, subs P (at spinal cord) for slow pain
Pathway- lateral spinothalamic (neo STT for fast pain
paleo STT for slow pain)

Reaction- pain is associated with muscle spasm,

withdrawal reflex (SC, fast pain), arousal (RF),
unpleasant emotions (limbic system, slow pain) and
autonomic changes- nausea, vomiting, pulse and BP
changes (hypothalamus, slow pain)

Localization & Intensity discrimination- poor but better

for fast pain

c) Pathways of Pain
1) From face- by trigeminal nerve (5 cranial nerve)

2) From esophagus, trachea & pharynx- 9 & 10 CN

(parasympathetic nerves)

3) From thoracic & abdominal viscera- sympathetic

nerves

4) From pelvic region- parasympathetic nerves

5) From skin of rest of the body- by free nerve endings

in lateral spinothalamic tract

Primary sensory cortex

thro. post. limb of IC

VBC Of thalamus

neo STT (fast pain) & paleo STT (slow pain)

dorsal horn of spinal cord, Marginal nucleus

for fast pain & Substantia gelatinosa for slow
pain

Origin, course & crossing

1 order neurons
Arise from receptors (free nerve endings) to dorsal horn
Of spinal cord, Marginal nucleus (MN) for fast pain &
Substantia gelatinosa (SG) for slow pain

2 order neurons
arise from MN & SG, cross to opposite side thro. Ante.
commissure & finally ascend in lateral column of SC as
neo STT (fast pain) & paleo STT (slow pain) & relay at VBC
Of thalamus & nearby st.

3 order neurons
arise from VBC of thalamus (mainly fast & few slow pain
fibers) & terminate at primary sensory cortex (area 3,1,2)

Termination
All fast pain fibers & few (20%) slow pain fibers terminate
at PSC while majority of slow pain fibers, subcortically at
diffuse nuclei of thalamus, tectal nucleus & RF.

Center
Is PSC but is perceived at the level of thalamus & RF

Collaterals
To RF (aurosal), limbic system (emotion) & hypothalamus
(autonomic changes)

Ischemic muscle pain (SN)

-

During muscle activity Lewis P factor (adenine, K &

lactic acid) pass from muscle to tissue space & clear
by blood

But if level of Lewis P factor becomes high (exduring exercise) pain starts till it is cleared

Clinicali) intermittent claudication (leg pain on walking, when

arteries are blocked),
ii) angina pectoris (chest pain on exercise when coronary
arteries are blocked )

Visceral pain (SN)

Causes1. Over distension of hollow viscera (commonest),
2. Ischemia.
3. Obstruction
4. Spasm of hollow viscera.
Pathwayfrom via type C autonomic nerves to lateral STT.
Properties-cause referred and radiating pain (like viscera to
peritoneum).
-more commonly associated with muscle guarding,

-associated with unpleasant emotions and autonomic

changes (nausea, vomiting, low pulse and low BP.)
-localization & intensity discrimination is poor

-Visceras insensitive to painParenchyma of liver,

brain tissue
and alveoli of lungs are insensitive to pain.
But liver capsule, bronchi, parietal pleura & meninges are
very sensitive to pain.

Referred Pain (SN)

Referred Pain is the pain that is felt away from the
damaged tissue.

Dermatome rulevisceral pain is often referred to embryonic

corresponding dermatome. The dermatome and the
visceral are innervated by the nerves arising from the
same spinal segment.
Example- Cardiac pain is referred to inside of the left arm.
- Pain of Appendix & ovary is referred to umbilicus,
- Diaphragm to rt. shoulder

1)convergence theory of referred pain

sensory nerve carrying pain sensation from the viscera
and the sensory nerves carrying pain sensation the
dermatome converge on to same second order neuron.

2) Facilitation theory of referred pain

sensory nerve carrying pain sensation from the viscera
via branches (collaterals) stimulate sensory nerve
carrying pain sensation from the dermatome. (produce
subliminal fringe effect)

a) Analgesic or pain control system of brain and spinal

cord Or
Mesenchephalic descending pain suppressing pathway
1. Periaqueductal grey area These fibers cause release of
encephalin & stimulates neurons in raphe nucleus
2. The raphe magnus nucleus These fibers cause release
of serotonin & stimulates neurons in spinal cord

3. Local neurons present in dorsal horns of spinal cord.

These fibers cause release of encephalin.
& encephalin causes presynaptic inhibition of pain fibers
entering into dorsal horn of spinal cord.

Stimulants of
Analgesic system
-fibers from limbic
System,hypothalamus

Periaqueductal grey area in

midbrain (encephalin)

The raphe magnus nucleus

in pons (serotonin)

-Stress, psychological
-Collaterals from pain
pathway,
-Brain opiate system
(endorphins and
encephalin)

Local neurons present in

dorsal horns (encephalin)

presynaptic inhibition of
pain fibers in dorsal horn

b) Gait control theory of pain (dorsal horn of SC)

in the dorsal horn A beta, fine touch fibers cause preSynaptic inhibition of pain fibers & closes the date for
pain sensation.
Role of brain in gate control
Terminals of pain fibers at dorsal horn have opiate
receptors, here descending cortical fibers can also inhibit
pain fibers & close the gate by secreting opiates

g)

Clinical
Hyperalgesia- increase sensitivity to pain is known as
hyperalgesia. It may be due to:
1) primary hyperalgesia- increase sensitivity of
receptors
2) secondary hyperalgesia increase sensitivity of
pathway. (thalamic overreacton)
Hypoalgesia- is decrease sensitivity to pain while

Paralgesia is abnormal pain sensation

Acute pain (good pain) & chronic pain (bad pain)

a)

Definition of pain

b) Physiology of pain (properties & reaction)

c)

Types of pain (fast/slow, muscular or visceral)

d) Pain pathway
e)

Visceral pain & Referred Pain

f)

Analgesic or pain control system of brain & spinal cord

g) Clinical

Fast pain

Slow pain

Sharp & bright, start .1 sec

after stimulus

Dull & aching, start 1 sec after

stimulus but persistent

Carried by A delta nerve

fibers

Carried by type C nerve fibers

Neurotransmitter at dorsal
horn of spinal cord is
Glutamic acid

Neurotransmitter at dorsal
horn of spinal cord is subs P

Associated with withdrawal Associated with unpleasant

reflex, tachycardia &
emotions & autonomic
hypertension
reaction (nausea, vomiting,
bradycardia & hypotension)
Better localization &
intensity discrimination

poor localization & intensity

discrimination

1) Receptors (10 Properties) & sensation (Pain)

2) Synapse & Reflex (10 Properties)
3) Tracts (3 sensory & 2 motor)

4) Spinal cord (complete & incomplete

transaction)