Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Referensi
W. Stallings, Data and Computer
Communications, 4ed, Macmillan, 1994.
F. Halsall, Data Communications,
Computer Networks and Open
Systems, Addison Wesley, 1996.
A Communications Model
Source
generates data to be transmitted
Transmitter
Converts data into transmittable signals
Transmission System
Carries data
Receiver
Converts received signal into data
Destination
Takes incoming data
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Simplified Communications
Model - Diagram
Simplified Data
Communications Model
Communications Standard
Many types of connection media :
telephone lines, optical fibers,
cables, radios, etc.
Many different types of machines and
operating systems
Many different network applications
Standard Bodies
International Telecommunications Union
Telecommunications Sector (ITU-T)
Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers (IEEE)
International Organization for
Standardization (ISO)
Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA)
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OSI
(Open Systems Interconnection)
OPEN SYSTEM means that it can communicate with
any other system that follows the specified standards,
formats and semantics.
Data
AH Data
Application
Presentation
Presentation
SH Data unit
Transport
TH
Network
Physical
Application
PH Data unit
Session
Data link
Program Y
NH
LH
Session
Data unit
Transport
Data unit
Network
Data unit
Bits
LT
Data link
Physical
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Transport of information
Error free
In sequence
No losses
No duplicates
Quality of service
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Transmission Medium
Guided - wire
Unguided - wireless
Characteristics and quality determined by
medium and signal
For guided, the medium is more important
For unguided, the bandwidth produced by
the antenna is more important
Key concerns are data rate and distance
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Twisted Pair
Twisted pair - INEXPENSIVE
Two wires twisted together.
Makes them less susceptible to acting like
an antenna and picking up radio frequency
information or appliance noise.
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Twisted Pair
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Within buildings
10Mbps or 100Mbps
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UTP Categories
Cat 3
up to 16MHz
Voice grade found in most offices
Twist length of 7.5 cm to 10 cm
Cat 4
up to 20 MHz
Cat 5 or Cat 6
up to 100MHz
Commonly pre-installed in new office buildings
Twist length 0.6 cm to 0.85 cm
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Aerial to TV
Cable TV
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Digital
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10s of km at least
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Wireless Transmission
Unguided media
Transmission and reception via antenna
Directional
Focused beam
Careful alignment required
Omni-directional
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Frequencies
2GHz to 40GHz
Microwave
Highly
directional
Point to point
Satellite
30MHz to 1GHz
Omnidirectional
Broadcast radio
3 x 1011 to 2 x 1014
Infrared
Local
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Terrestrial Microwave
Parabolic dish
Focused beam
Line of sight
Long haul telecommunications
Higher frequencies give higher data rates
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Satellite Microwave
Satellite is relay station
Satellite receives on one frequency,
amplifies or repeats signal and transmits
on another frequency
Requires geo-stationary orbit
Height of 35,784km
Television
Long distance telephone
Private business networks
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Broadcast Radio
Omni-directional
FM radio
UHF and VHF television
Line of sight
Suffers from multi-path interference
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Infrared
Modulate non-coherent infrared light
Line of sight (or reflection)
Blocked by walls
e.g. TV remote control, IRD port
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Terminology (1)
Transmitter
Receiver
Medium
Guided medium
e.g. twisted pair, optical fiber
Unguided medium
e.g. air, water, vacuum
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Terminology (2)
Direct link
No intermediate devices
Point-to-point
Direct link
Only 2 devices share link
Multi-point
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Terminology (3)
Simplex
One direction
e.g. Television
Half duplex
Full duplex
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Terminology (4)
Bits per second (bps).
Baud rate
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Terminology (5)
Asynchronous transmission
Synchronous transmission
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Signals
Transmission
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Data
Analog
Digital
Discrete values
e.g. text, integers
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Modem
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Signals
Type of signal communicated (analog or digital).
Analog: Those signals that vary with smooth continuous
changes.
A continuously changing signal similar to that found on
the speaker wires of a high-fidelity stereo system.
Digital: Those signals that vary in steps or jumps from
value to value. They are usually in the form of pulses of
electrical energy (represent 0s or 1s).
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Analog Transmission
Analog signal transmitted without regard to
content
May be analog or digital data
Attenuated over distance
Use amplifiers to boost signal
Also amplifies noise
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Digital Transmission
Concerned with content
Integrity endangered by noise, attenuation etc.
Repeaters used
Repeater receives signal
Extracts bit pattern
Retransmits
Attenuation is overcome
Noise is not amplified
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Advantages of Digital
Transmission
Digital technology
Low cost LSI/VLSI technology
Data integrity
Longer distances over lower quality lines
Capacity utilization
High bandwidth links economical
High degree of multiplexing easier with digital techniques
Security & Privacy
Encryption
Integration
Can treat analog and digital data similarly
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Transmission Impairments
Signal received may differ from signal
transmitted
Analog - degradation of signal quality
Digital - bit errors
Caused by
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Attenuation
Signal strength falls off with distance
Depends on medium
Received signal strength:
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Propagation Delay
The time required for a signal to travel
from one point to another.
Propagation velocity varies with frequency.
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Noise (1)
Additional signals inserted between
transmitter and receiver
Thermal
Inter-modulation
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Noise (2)
Crosstalk
Impulse
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Channel Capacity
Data rate
Bandwidth
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Modulation Techniques
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Adaptive Modulation
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Multiplexing
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TDM System
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FDM System
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W
D
M
Faster Electronics
(TDM)
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Fiber Networks
Time division multiplexing
Single wavelength per fiber
Multiple channels per fiber
4 OC-3 channels in OC-12
4 OC-12 channels in OC-48
16 OC-3 channels in OC-48
Channel 1
Single
Fiber (One
Wavelength)
Channel n
l1
l2
Single Fiber
(Multiple
Wavelengths)
ln
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Types of WDM
Coarse WDM (CWDM)
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DS-1
DS-3
OC-1
OC-3
OC-12
OC-48
SONET
ADM
Fiber
(D)WDM
OC-12c
Takes multiple optical
OC-48c
signals and multiplexes
OC-192c
onto a single fiber
No signal format conversion
DWDM
OADM
Fiber
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OC-48
OC-48
OC-48
OC-48
120 km
OA
OA
4 Fibers Pairs
32 Regenerators
OC-48
OC-48
OC-48
OC-48
120 km
OA
OA
1 Fiber Pair
4 Optical Amplifiers
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New Band
S-Band
C-Band
L-Band
U-Band
Wavelength (nm)
820 - 900
1260 1360
1360 1460
1460 1530
1530 1565
1565 1625
1625 1675
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Transmission Effects
Attenuation:
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