BASIC PRINCIPLE OF MINERALOGY

Definition of mineral
Crustal abundance of elements
Physical properties
Colour, lustre, streak
Crystal habit
Crystallography
Cleavage
Tenacity
Specific gravity
Magnetism
Others

Definition of mineral :
A mineral is
a naturally occurring
solid with
highly ordered atomic arrangement and with
definite (but not fixed) chemical composition
formed by inorganic processes.
Cornelis Klein (2002): The 22nd Edition of the Manual of Mineral Science

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Naturally occurring
Stable at room temperature
Represented by a chemical formula
Usually abiogenic
Ordered atomic arrangement
Dyar, M.D.; Gunter, M.E. (2008): Mineralogy and Optical Mineralogy

Natural occurrence :
To distinguish between minerals and synthetic minerals produced in laboratory
(e.g., synthetic rubies, diamonds, emeralds)

Solid state :
Excludes liquids and gases (e.g., water, mercury)
Note : Both water and mercury can be frozen to the solid state
but than they are not stable at room temperature.
However, such substances often fall in the domain of the mineralogist
they are called mineraloids.

Atomic order
Minerals are crystalline,
atoms or ions arranged in regular and repeating geometric pattern

Chalcopyrit

CuFeS2

Solids lacking the atomic order are called amorphous or glasses

Atoms are disordered, glass is like solidified liquid

Obsidian
(volcanic
glass)

Limonite
FeO(OH)nH2O

Chemical composition
Mineral can be expressed by a specific chemical formula
Composition is either
Fixed
dolomite CaMg(CO3)2
pure = end-member
Ca : Mg : CO3 = 1 : 1 : 2

Not fixed
Ca(Mg,Fe,Mn) (CO3)2
Ca : (Mg+Fe+Mn) : CO3 = 1 : 1 : 2

Another example
Forsterite

Fayalite

Mg2SiO4

Fe2SiO4

End-members

Olivine

Solid solution
of end-members

(Mg,Fe)SiO4

Inorganic origin

Excludes biogenic substances

Carbon

Graphite

Diamond

Coal

CaCO3
Calcite

Corals

Shells

Ca(PO4)3(OH)

Apatite

Bones & teeth

Classifications of minerals
Wikipedia :
webmineral.com :
IMA :

4990 known minerals

4714 minerals in the database
4660 approved minerals

Less than 100 minerals of practical interest

ORE MINERALS
This
course

ROCK FORMING MINERALS

Native metals
Oxides

Silicates

Sulphides

Carbonates

Halides
Sulphates
Phosphates

Common
anions

Abundance

Earth crust
(continental & oceanic)

Continental crust thicker than oceanic crust, 70% of surface covered by oceans
Mass of continental crust approx 1.41022 kg
1ppm of mass corresponds to 14 000 000 gigatonnes

Crustal abundances of elements

Others
1.5%

Mg 2.1%
K 2.6%
Na 2.8%
Ca 3.6%

Fe 5%
Al 8.1%

O, Si,
Al
82.40
%

PPM

Si 27.7%

10000
1000
100
10
1

O 46.6%

Ti Mn Ba Sr Zr V Cr Rb Ni
44001000 425 375 165 120 102 90 84

Zn Cu Pb U
70 60 14 2.7

The main silicate mineral groups

Family

Structure

Example

Formula

Olivine

Isolated SiO4

Forsterite

Mg2SiO4

Pyroxene

Single chains

Hedenbergite

CaFeSi2O6

Amphibole Double chains

Hornblende

NaCa2(Mg,Fe,Al)5(Al,Si)8O22(OH)2

Mica

Sheets

Muscovite

KAl2(AlSi3O10)(OH)2

Feldspar

Framework

Plagioclase

(Na,Ca)(Al,Si)3O8

Quartz

Framework

Quartz

SiO2

Silicate minerals can have complex structure (hornblende)

due to ionic substitution or solid solutions

Some are hydrous (muscovite) contain water in their structure

Common carbonate minerals

Name

Formula

Name

Formula

Calcite

CaCO3

Smithsonite

ZnCO3

Magnesite

MgCO3

Cerussite

PbCO3

Dolomite

(Ca,Mg)(CO3)2

Malachite

Cu2CO3(OH)2

siderite

FeCO3

Azurite

Cu3(CO3)2(OH)2

Native metals
Gold group and Platinum group Elements (PGE or PGM)
Gold group

PGE

Copper

Cu

Ruthenium

Ru

Silver

Ag

Rhodium

Rh

Gold

Au

Palladium

Pd

Osmium

Os

Iridium

Ir

Platinum

Pt

Common sulphide minerals

Name

Formula

Name

Formula

Pyrite

FeS2

Arsenopyrite

FeAsS

Pyrrhotite

FeS

Sphalerite

(Zn,Fe)S

Chalcopyrite

CuFeS2

Galena

PbS

Bornite

Cu5FeS4

Pentlandite

(Fe,Ni)9S8

Chalcocite

Cu2S

Stibnite

Sb2S3

Covellite

CuS

Molybdenite

MoS2

Common oxide minerals

Name

Formula

Name

Formula

Magnetite

Fe3O4

Cuprite

Cu2O

Haematite

Fe2O3

Cassiterite

SnO2

Goethite

FeOOH

Pyrolusite

MnO2

Ilmenite

FeTiO3

(Fe,Mn)(Nb,Ta)2O6

Rutile

TiO2

Columbitetantalite

Chromite

FeCr2O4

Uraninite

UO2

Physical properties of minerals

Visual inspection

Physical, mechanical, chemical

Crystal shape crystallography

(form & habit)

Tenacity

Intergrowths, twins, striations

Hardness

Stage of aggregation

Specific gravity (density)

Colour, streak, lustre

Magnetism

Cleavage

Radioactivity

Other optical properties

Solubility (e.g., in HCl)

Properties in red influence the way minerals behave in processing operations

Colour
Colour is a response of the eye to the visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum

Incident (white) light

Scattered light

absorbed

Reflected (coloured) light

Transmitted (coloured) light

Colour is the most changeable, variable, unreliable property

Varies from crystal to another as well as within one mineral
Tourmaline
(Ca,Na,K)(Al,Fe2+,Fe3+,Li,Mg,Mn2+)3(Al,Cr3+,Fe3+,V3+)6O18(BO3)3(O,OH)3(F,O,OH)

Very often colour

is not a diagnostic property

Some (only a few) minerals have colour as a constant property

Metallic minerals usually wide range of colours
Non-metallic minerals usually narrow range of colours

Lustre
Appearance of the surface in reflected light
1. Metallic look of a polished metal

Pyrite

Chalcopyrite

Typically 20-50% of the incident light is reflected

Galena

2. Submetallic
Appearance of a metal dulled by weathering or corrosion

Euxenite

Sphalerite

Reflects more than 5% and less than 20% of the incident light

3. Non-metallic
Non-metallic look, most of the light passes to the mineral (<5% reflected)
Vitreous/glassy

Quartz

Greasy/oily

Opal

Adamantine

Diamond

Silky

Gypsum

Resinous

Waxy

Amber

Jade

Pearly

Stellerite

Dull/earthy

Kaolinite

Streak
The colour of a mineral powder (left on a streak plate)

Streak plate unglazed porcelain, with hardness about 7 (Mohs scale)

Streak has more diagnostic power than colour of the mineral

Other optical properties

Asterism

Colour change

Chatoyancy

Schiller(twinkle)

Aventurescence

Fluoroscence Phosphorescence

Crystal habit
Describes its visible external shape
depends strongly on the conditions during the crystal formation
The shape of a crystal is also dictated by the internal arrangement of atoms/ions
Euhedral
Subhedral
Anhedral

well formed
moderately formed
poorly formed (or not at all)

The crystals may exhibit

Intergrowths
Twinning
Striations

All crystals fall into six crystal families and 32 crystal classes
Based on elements of symmetry
Planes
Axes
of symmetry
Center
Six 2-fold
180
Binary

Four 3-fold
120
Trigonal

Three 4-fold
90
Tetragonal

9 planes

13 axes

1 center

Crystal & lattice systems

Crystal
Family

Crystal
System

Classes

Bravais
Lattices

4 threefold axes

Cubic

1 fourfold axis

Tetragonal

Orthorhombic

3 twofold axes or
1 twofold axis + 2 planes

Orthorhombic

Monoclinic

1 twofold axis or 1 plane

Monoclinic

None

Triclinic

Rhombohedral

Hexagonal

Cubic/isometric

Tetragonal

Triclinic
Hexagonal Trigonal
Hexagonal

Symmetry

1 threefold axis

1 sixfold axis

32

14

Lattice
System

System

Axes

Angles

Cubic/Isometric a = b = c (a1= a2= a3) a = b = g = 90

Tetragonal

a = b c (a1= a2 c)

a = b = g = 90

Orthorhombic

abc

a = b = g = 90

Monoclinic

abc

a = g = 90 , b 90

Triclinic

abc

a b g 90

Rhombohedral

a=b=c

a = b = g 90

Hexagonal

a1 = a 2 = a 3 c

a =120 , g = 90

Bravais lattices

5 classes of cubic system

Class

Axes

Planes

Center

2-Fold

3-Fold

4-Fold

6-Fold

Tetardoidal

Diploidal

yes

Hextetrahedral

Gyroidal

Hexoctahedral

yes

Cube

Octahedron

Dodecahedron

Building crystal shape with unit cells

+
Cube

Dodecahedron

=
Octahedron

Cuboctahedron

Hexoctahedron

Tetrahexahedron

Steven Dutch, Natural and Applied Sciences, University of Wisconsin - Green Bay
http://www.uwgb.edu/dutchs/symmetry/hexocuc.htm

7 classes of tetragonal system

Class

Axes

Planes

Center

2-Fold

3-Fold

4-Fold

6-Fold

Disphenoidal

Pyramidal

Dipyramidal

yes

Scalenohedral

Ditetragonal pyramidal

Trapezohedral

Ditetragonal dipyramidal

yes

Prism

Dipyramid

Dipyramid prism

Building crystal shape with unit cells

Prism

Ditetragonal
dipyramid

Pyramid

Trapezohedron

Dipyramid

Scalenohedron

Ditetragonal
pyramid

Disphenoid

Steven Dutch, Natural and Applied Sciences, University of Wisconsin - Green Bay
http://www.uwgb.edu/dutchs/symmetry/tetraguc.htm

Tetrahedron

Diploid

Pyritohedron

Gyroid

Tetartoid

Steven Dutch, Natural and Applied Sciences, University of Wisconsin - Green Bay
http://www.uwgb.edu/dutchs/symmetry/isometuc.htm

3 classes of orthorhombic system

Class

Axes

Planes

2-Fold

3-Fold

4-Fold

6-Fold

Pyramidal

Disphenoidal

Dipyramidal

Prism

Disphenoid

Center

Dipyramid

yes

Building crystal shape with unit cells

Prism

Pyramids

Orthorhombic cuboctahedron

Disphenoid

Steven Dutch, Natural and Applied Sciences, University of Wisconsin - Green Bay
http://www.uwgb.edu/dutchs/symmetry/o-m-uc.htm

3 classes of monoclinic system

Class

Axes

Planes

Center

2-Fold

3-Fold

4-Fold

6-Fold

Domatic

Sphenoidal

Prismatic

Domatic

Sphenoidal

Prismatic

Building crystal shape with unit cells

Prism

Dipyramid

Very similar forms for triclinic system

Steven Dutch, Natural and Applied Sciences, University of Wisconsin - Green Bay
http://www.uwgb.edu/dutchs/symmetry/o-m-uc.htm

2 classes of triclinic system

Class

Axes

Planes

Center

2-Fold

3-Fold

4-Fold

6-Fold

Pedial

Pinacoidal

yes

7 classes of hexagonal system

Axes

Class

Planes

Center

2-Fold

3-Fold

4-Fold

6-Fold

Trigonal dipyramidal

Pyramidal

Dipyramidal

yes

Ditrigonal dipyramidal

Dihexagonal pyramidal

Trapezohedral

Dihexagonal dipyramidal

yes

Prism

Pyramid

Dipyramids

Trapezohedron

5 classes of trigonal system

Axes

Class

Planes

Center

2-Fold

3-Fold

4-Fold

6-Fold

Pyramidal

Rhombohedral

yes

Ditrigonal pyramidal

Trapezohedral

Hexagonal scalenohedral

yes

Pyramid

Rhombohedron

Trapezohedron

Scalenohedron

Building crystal shape with unit cells

Prisms

Trapezohedron

Pyramids

Rhombohedrons

Quartz crystal

Steven Dutch, Natural and Applied Sciences, University of Wisconsin - Green Bay
http://www.uwgb.edu/dutchs/symmetry/trigrhuc.htm

Miller indices
Convenient way of labelling faces on a crystal.
Express the directions of planes in which the faces lie.
Represent the relative intercepts of faces
on the crystallographic axes.

Mathematical background
z

Equation of a plane in 3D space

a x b y cz d
x y z
1
h k l

l
k

h
x

Miller indices

Describe the directions of planes (of faces)

Represent the ratio of intercepts with axes
Have nothing to do with shapes or sizes
Can be negative -- denoted with a bar
Are (usually small) integer numbers
Hexagonal system -- 4 axes = 4 indices

Notation
(h,k,l)

represents a point

(hkl)
{hkl}

represents a plane
represents a family of planes

[hkl]
<hkl>

represents a direction
represents a family of directions

Wolfram Alpha (Mathematica) Widget

http://www.wolframalpha.com/widgets/gallery/view.jsp?id=cc011df99e5873930ccb659743a221b

Hexagonal prism (top view) 3 axes

a2
010

110

100

-a1

a1
100

1 10

0 10

-a2

Hexagonal prism (top view) 4 axes

a2

a3
0110

1100

1010

-a1

a1
1 100

10 10

0 1 10

-a2

-a3

Determining the Miller indices

Face of an augite crystal

Unit cell dimensions for augite

ax=9.73
by=8.91
cz=5.25
The axial ratio thus is
9.73 : 8.91 : 5.25 = 1 : 0.91 : 0.54

Miller indices
1 0.91 0.54
(hkl )
0.026 0.026 0.026 111
38.2
35.0
20.7

The Miller indices are expressed as reciprocal intercepts

in terms of unit lengths

Integers in Miller indices are

always small
Integers larger than 2 unlikely
in prominent faces
Integers larger than 4 rare in
minor faces

Steven Dutch, Natural and Applied Sciences, University of Wisconsin - Green Bay
http://www.uwgb.edu/dutchs/symmetry/millerdx.htm

Crystal forms
A crystal form a collection of equivalent crystal faces
related to each other by the symmetry of the mineral
Closed form encloses a volume entirely
Open form does not enclose a volume entirely
Isometric forms 15 different forms possible
Nonisometric forms
Pedions (O)
Pinacoids (O)
Dihedrons (O)
Prisms (O)
Pyramids (O)

Dipyramids (C)
Scalenohedrons (C)
Trapezohedrons (C)
Rhombohedrons (C)
Tetrahedrons (C)

Crystal forms in the isometric system

W.D. Nesse : Introduction to Mineralogy, 2000, Oxford University Press

Crystal forms in the isometric system

W.D. Nesse : Introduction to Mineralogy, 2000, Oxford University Press

Polymorphism
Polymorphs are crystals with the same chemical composition but different crystal system
Generally related to temperature of formation
Zns
FeS2

Sphalerite
cubic

Pyrite (high T)
cubic

Marcasite (low T)
hexagonal

Polymorphs have different physical properties

Are stable at different T & p
Behave differently during processing
Extreme example : graphite vs. diamond

Wurtzite
hexagonal

Cleavage
Minerals have a tendency to break along the weak planes
dictated by atoms/ions internal structure
Reason? Some bonds are weaker than others
These planes of weakness are called cleavage planes or cleavages

rhodochrosite

calcite

Minerals can have 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 cleavage planes

Well developed or poorly developed

Some minerals have no cleavage,

they simply fracture

pyrite

Hardness (Mohs scale of mineral hardness) -- List of 10 minerals

Each mineral on the list will scratch a mineral whose hardness is less
Each mineral on the list will be scratched by a harder mineral
Hardness Mineral

Formula

Talc

Mg3Si4O10(OH)2

Gypsum

CaSO42H2O

Calcite

CaCO3

Fluorite

CaF2

5
6

Apatite
Orthoclase

Ca5(PO4)3(OH,Cl,F)
KAlSi3O8

Intermediate
Rb, Cs, Li, Na, K
Ga, Sr, In, Sn, Ba, Pb, graphite
Ca, Se, Cd, S, Te, Bi, Ce
Mg, Au, Ag, Al, Zn
Cu, As, Sb
Fe, Ni
Pt, steel
Co, Zr, Pd, obsidian
Be, Mo
Ti, Mn, Ge, Nb, Rh, U

Quartz

SiO2

Topaz

Al2SiO4(OH,F)2

Corundum

Al2O3

10

Diamond

glass, pyrite, Si, Ru, Ir, opal, peridot

Os, Re, V
carbides (Si, W, Ti)
boron nitride, titanium diboride
nanocrystalline diamond

Tenacity

Brittle

Breaks or powders easily

Most ionic bonded

Quartz

Malleable Pounded into thin sheets

Metallic bonded

Silver

Ductile

Drawn into a wire

Only malleable

Gold

Sectile

Cut smoothly with a knife

Relatively few

Gypsum

Elastic

Springs back when bent

Copper

Flexible

Stays bent when bent

Chrysotile, serpentine

Combination of hardness, cleavage and tenacity may explain the

some minerals may behave during processing
Mineral

Hardness Cleavage

Tenacity Behaviour

Molybdenite
MoS2

1-1.5

1 direction
perfect

sectile

Flat soft flakes

Difficult to grind

Native Gold
Au

2.5-3

none

ductile

Flattens into flakes during milling

Galena, PbS

2.5

3 directions
perfect

brittle

Breaks easily along cleavages,

reports to fines during milling and
flotation

Pyrite
FeS2

6-6.5

none

brittle

Hard, remains coarser during milling

Density, specific gravity

Density is defined as mass per unit volume

m
V

g cm 3

Specific gravity is defined as the density of a material divided by

Density of water at 4C (essentially 1 g/cm3)
G

H O

G determination
Based on buoyancy
Jolly balance
Pycnometer

G 1

Density of a mineral depends on

Chemical composition
How tightly the atoms/ions are packed together (i.e., structure)
Temperature

In solids
(unlike in gases
& liquids)
Density may not be
uniform, constant

Silicates

Sulphides

K-Feldspar

2.56

Sphalerite

4.1

Quartz

2.65

Chalcopyrite

4.2

Calcite

2.7

Pyrrhotite

4.6

Chlorite

2.8

Pentlandite

4.8

Talc

2.8

Pyrite

5.0

Olivine

3.3

Galena

7.6

Oxides

Ilmenite

4.75

Diamond

3.5

Chromite

5.1

Copper

8.9

Magnetite

5.2

Gold

19.3

Haematite

5.26

Platinum

21.5

Most gangue

2.7 3.1

Native elements

Magnetism
Magnetic fields are produced by the movement of electrons
At the atomic level, the most important movement is electron spin
Paired electrons magnetic moment cancels out
Unpaired electrons (usually in partially filled 3d orbitals) net magnetic moment

Each spinning electron produces a magnetic field with a Bohr magnetic moment B

Behaviour in external magnetic field

Diamagnetism
Paramagnetism
Ferromagnetism
Ferrimagnetsim
Antiferromagnetism

Weak repulsion (induced)

Weak attraction
Strong attraction, net magnetization
Moderate attraction, net magnetization
Repulsion

Magnetic properties of minerals may play important role in the process of separation

Electron energy levels

Iron

[Ar]
Fe

[Ar]4s23d6

2B

Fe2+

[Ar]4s03d6

4B

Fe3+

[Ar]4s03d5

5B

W.D. Nesse : Introduction to Mineralogy, 2000, Oxford University Press

Other properties

Piezoelectricity

Radioactivity

Solubility in HCl

Blue
Red
Green

Uranium 238U
Potassium 40K
Thorium 232Th