Furnaces and

Refractories
Yuvaraj .C
Assistant Director of Training
ATI Chennai
1

Introduction
Type of furnaces and refractory
materials

Assessment of furnaces
Energy efficiency opportunities

Introduction

What is a Furnace?
Equipment to melt metals
Casting
Change shape
Change properties

Type of fuel important

Mostly liquid/gaseous fuel or electricity

Low efficiencies due to

High operating temperature
Emission of hot exhaust gases
3

Introduction

Chimney:
remove
combustion
gases

Burners: raise or
maintain chamber
temperature

Furnace Components
Furnace chamber:
constructed of
insulating materials
Hearth: support or
carry the steel.
Consists of
refractory materials

Charging & discharging doors for

loading & unloading stock

(The Carbon Trust)

Introduction

What are Refractories:

Materials that
Withstand high temperatures and sudden
changes
Withstand action of molten slag, glass, hot
gases etc
Withstand load at service conditions
Withstand abrasive forces
Conserve heat
Have low coefficient of thermal expansion
Will not contaminate the load
5

Introduction

Refractories
Refractory lining of a
furnace arc

Refractory walls of a
furnace interior with
burner blocks
6

Introduction

Properties of Refractories
Melting point
Temperature at which a test pyramid (cone)
fails to support its own weight

Size
Affects stability of furnace structure

Bulk density
Amount of refractory material within a
volume (kg/m3)
High bulk density = high volume stability,
heat capacity and resistance
7

Introduction

Properties of Refractories
Porosity
Volume of open pores as % of total refractory
volume
Low porosity = less penetration of molten
material

Cold crushing strength

Resistance of refractory to crushing

Creep at high temperature

Deformation of refractory material under
stress at given time and temperature
8

Introduction

Properties of Refractories
Pyrometric cones
Used in ceramic industries
to test refractoriness of
refractory bricks
Each cone is mix of oxides
that melt at specific
temperatures

(BEE India, 2004)

Pyrometric Cone Equivalent (PCE)

Temperature at which the refractory brick and
the cone bend
Refractory cannot be used above this temp

Introduction

Properties of Refractories
Volume stability, expansion &
shrinkage
Permanent changes during refractory service
life
Occurs at high temperatures

Reversible thermal expansion

Phase transformations during heating and
cooling

10

Introduction

Properties of Refractories
Thermal conductivity
Depends on composition and silica content
Increases with rising temperature

High thermal conductivity:

Heat transfer through brickwork required
E.g. recuperators, regenerators

Low thermal conductivity:

Heat conservation required (insulating
refractories)
E.g. heat treatment furnaces
11

Introduction
Type of furnaces and refractory
materials

Assessment of furnaces
Energy efficiency opportunities

12

Type of Furnaces and Refractories

Type of Furnaces
Forging furnaces
Re-rolling mill furnaces
Continuous reheating furnaces

Type of Refractories
Type of Insulating Materials

13

Type of Furnaces and Refractories

Classification Combustion Furnaces

Classification method

Types and examples

1. Type of fuel used

Oil-fired
Gas-fired
Coal-fired

2. Mode of charging materials

Intermittent / Batch
Periodical
Forging
Re-rolling (batch/pusher)
Pot
Continuous
Pusher
Walking beam
Walking hearth
Continuous recirculating bogie furnaces
Rotary hearth furnaces

3. Mode of heat transfer

Radiation (open fire place)

Convection (heated through medium)

4. Mode of waste heat

recovery

Recuperative
Regenerative

14

Type of Furnaces and Refractories

Forging Furnace
Used to preheat billets/ingots
Use open fireplace system with
radiation heat transmission
Temp 1200-1250 oC
Operating cycle
Heat-up time
Soaking time
Forging time

Fuel use: depends on material and

number of reheats

15

Type of Furnaces and Refractories

Re-rolling Mill Furnace Batch type

Box type furnace

Used for heating up scrap/ingots/billets

Manual charge / discharge of batches

Temp 1200 oC
Operating cycle: heat-up, re-rolling
Output 10 - 15 tons/day
Fuel use: 180-280 kg coal/ton material

16

Type of Furnaces and Refractories

Re-rolling Mill Furnace

Continuous pusher type
Not batch, but continuous charge and
discharge
Temp 1250 oC
Operating cycle: heat-up, re-rolling
Output 20-25 tons/day

Heat absorption by material is slow,

steady, uniform

17

Type of Furnaces and Refractories

Continuous Reheating Furnaces

Continuous material flow

Material temp 900 1250 oC

Door size minimal to avoid air
infiltration
Stock kept together and pushed
Pusher type furnaces

Stock on moving hearth or structure

Walking beam, walking hearth, continuous
recirculating bogie, rotary hearth furnaces

18

Type of Furnaces and Refractories

Continuous Reheating Furnaces

1. Pusher Furnace
Pushers on skids (rails) with water-cooled
support push the stock
Hearth sloping towards discharge end
Burners at discharge
end or top and/or
bottom
Chimney with
recuperator for
waste heat recovery
(The Carbon Trust, 1993)

19

Type of Furnaces and Refractories

Continuous Reheating Furnaces

2. Walking Beam Furnace
Stock placed on stationary ridges
Walking beams raise the stock and move forwards
Walking beams lower stock onto stationary ridges
at exit
Stock is removed
Walking beams
return to furnace
entrance

(The Carbon Trust, 1993)

20

Type of Furnaces and Refractories

Continuous Reheating Furnaces

3. Walking Hearth Furnace
Refractory blocks extend through hearth
openings
Stock rests on fixed refractory blocks
Stock transported
in small steps
walking the hearth
Stock removed
at discharge end

(The Carbon Trust, 1993)

21

Type of Furnaces and Refractories

Continuous Reheating Furnaces

4. Continuous Recirculating Bogie
Furnace
Shape of long and narrow tunnel
Stock placed on bogie (cart with wheels) with
refractory hearth
Several bogies
move like train
Stock removed
at discharge end
Bogie returned
to entrance
(The Carbon Trust, 1993)

22

Type of Furnaces and Refractories

Continuous Reheating Furnaces

5. Rotary Hearth Furnace

Walls and roof remain stationary

Hearth moves in circle on rollers
Stock placed on hearth
Heat moves in
opposite direction
of hearth
Temp 1300oC

(The Carbon Trust, 1993)

23

Type of Furnaces and Refractories

Classification of Refractories
Classification method

Examples

Chemical composition
ACID, which readily combines with bases

Silica, Semisilica, Aluminosilicate

BASIC, which consists mainly of metallic

oxides that resist the action of bases

Magnesite, Chrome-magnesite, Magnesitechromite, Dolomite

NEUTRAL, which does not combine with

acids nor bases

Fireclay bricks, Chrome, Pure Alumina

Special

Carbon, Silicon Carbide, Zirconia

End use

Blast furnace casting pit

Method of manufacture

Dry press process, fused cast, hand

moulded, formed normal, fired or chemically
bonded, unformed (monolithics, plastics,
ramming mass, gunning castable, spraying)
24

Type of Furnaces and Refractories

Fireclay Refractories
Common in industry: materials available and
inexpensive
Consist of aluminium silicates
Decreasing melting point (PCE) with increasing
impurity and decreasing AL2O3

High Alumina Refractories

45 - 100% alumina

High alumina % = high refractoriness

Applications: hearth and shaft of blast furnaces,
ceramic kilns, cement kilns, glass tanks

25

Type of Furnaces and Refractories

Silica Brick
>93% SiO2 made from quality rocks
Iron & steel, glass industry
Advantages: no softening until fusion point is
reached; high refractoriness; high resistance to
spalling, flux and slag, volume stability

Magnesite
Chemically basic: >85% magnesium oxide

Properties depend on silicate bond concentration

High slag resistance, especially lime and iron

26

Type of Furnaces and Refractories

Chromite Refractories
Chrome-magnesite

15-35% Cr2O3 and 42-50% MgO

Used for critical parts of high temp furnaces
Withstand corrosive slags
High refractories

Magnesite-chromite

>60% MgO and 8-18% Cr2O3

High temp resistance
Basic slags in steel melting
Better spalling resistance

27

Type of Furnaces and Refractories

Zirconia Refractories
Zirconium dioxide ZrO2

Stabilized with calcium, magnesium, etc.

High strength, low thermal conductivity, not
reactive, low thermal loss
Used in glass furnaces, insulating refractory

Oxide Refractories (Alumina)

Aluminium oxide + alumina impurities
Chemically stable, strong, insoluble, high
resistance in oxidizing and reducing atmosphere
Used in heat processing industry, crucible shaping28

Type of Furnaces and Refractories

Monolithics
Single piece casts in equipment shape

Replacing conventional refractories

Advantages

Elimination of joints
Faster application
Heat savings
Better spalling resistance
Volume stability
Easy to transport, handle, install
Reduced downtime for repairs

29

Type of Furnaces and Refractories

Insulating Materials Classification

Material with low heat conductivity:
keeps furnace surface temperature
low
Classification into five groups

Insulating bricks
Insulating castables and concrete
Ceramic fiber
Calcium silicate
Ceramic coatings (high emissivity coatings)
30

Type of Furnaces and Refractories

Castables and Concretes

Consist of
Insulation materials used for making piece
refractories
Concretes contain Portland or high-alumina
cement

Application
Monolithic linings of furnace sections
Bases of tunnel kiln cars in ceramics
industry
31

Type of Furnaces and Refractories

Ceramic Fibers
Thermal mass insulation materials

Manufactured by blending alumina

and silica
Bulk wool to make insulation
products
Blankets, strips, paper, ropes, wet felt etc

Produced in two temperature grades

32

Type of Furnaces and Refractories

Ceramic Fibers
Remarkable properties and benefits

Low thermal conductivity

Light weight
Lower heat storage
Thermal shock resistant
Chemical resistance
Mechanical resilience
Low installation costs
Ease of maintenance
Ease of handling
Thermal efficiency

Lightweight furnace
Simple steel fabrication
work
Low down time
Increased productivity
Additional capacity
Low maintenance costs
Longer service life
High thermal efficiency
Faster response

33

Type of Furnaces and Refractories

High Emissivity Coatings

Emissivity: ability to absorb and
radiate heat
Coatings applied to interior furnace
surface:

emissivity stays constant

Increase emissivity from 0.3 to 0.8
Uniform heating and extended refractory life
Fuel reduction by up to 25-45%
34

Type of Furnaces and Refractories

High Emissivity Coatings

(BEE India, 2005)

35

Training Agenda: Steam

Introduction
Type of furnaces and refractory
materials

Assessment of furnaces
Energy efficiency opportunities

36

Assessment of Furnaces

Heat Losses Affecting Furnace

Performance
Heat input

FURNACE
Heat in stock

Other losses

Furnace surface/skin

Openings in furnace

Hydrogen in fuel

Moisture in fuel

Flue gas

37

Assessment of Furnaces

Instruments to Assess Furnace

Performance
Parameters
to be measured

Location of
measurement

Instrument
required

Required
Value

Furnace soaking zone

temperature (reheating
furnaces)

Soaking zone and side

wall

Pt/Pt-Rh thermocouple
with indicator and
recorder

1200-1300oC

Flue gas temperature

In duct near the discharge

end, and entry to
recuperator

Chromel Alummel
Thermocouple with
indicator

700oC max.

Flue gas temperature

After recuperator

Hg in steel thermometer

300oC (max)

Furnace hearth pressure

in the heating zone

Near charging end and

side wall over the hearth

Low pressure ring gauge

+0.1 mm of Wc

Oxygen in flue gas

In duct near the discharge

end

Fuel efficiency monitor for

oxygen and temperature

5% O2

Billet temperature

Portable

Infrared pyrometer or
optical pyrometer

38

Assessment of Furnaces

Calculating Furnace Performance

Direct Method

Thermal efficiency of furnace

= Heat in the stock / Heat in fuel
consumed for heating the stock
Heat in the stock Q:
Q = m x Cp (t1 t2)
Q = Quantity of heat of stock in kCal
m = Weight of the stock in kg
Cp= Mean specific heat of stock in kCal/kg oC
t1 = Final temperature of stock in oC
t2 = Initial temperature of the stock before it enters the furnace in oC

39

Assessment of Furnaces

Calculating Furnace Performance

Direct Method - example

m = Weight of
the stock = 6000
kg
Cp= Mean
specific heat of
m x Cp (t1 t2)
stock = 0.12
kCal/kg oC
6000 kg X 0.12 X (1340 40)
t1 = Final
temperature of
936000 kCal
stock = 1340 oC
t2 = Initial
temperature of
the stock = 40 oC
(heat input / heat output) x 100
Calorific value of
oil = 10000
[936000 / (368 x 10000) x 100 = 25.43%
kCal/kg
Fuel consumption
= 368 kg/hr

Heat in the stock Q =

Efficiency =

Heat loss = 100% - 25% = 75%

40

Assessment of Furnaces

Calculating Furnace Performance

Indirect Method
Heat losses
a) Flue gas loss

= 57.29 %

b) Loss due to moisture in fuel

= 1.36 %

c) Loss due to H2 in fuel

= 9.13 %

d) Loss due to openings in furnace

= 5.56 %

e) Loss through furnace skin

= 2.64 %

Total losses

= 75.98 %

Furnace efficiency =
Heat supply minus total heat loss

100% 76% = 24%

41

Assessment of Furnaces

Calculating Furnace Performance

Typical efficiencies for industrial furnaces
Furnace type

Thermal efficiencies (%)

1) Low Temperature furnaces

a. 540 980 oC (Batch type)

20-30

b. 540 980 oC (Continous type)

15-25

c. Coil Anneal (Bell) radiant type

5-7

d. Strip Anneal Muffle

7-12

2) High temperature furnaces

a. Pusher, Rotary

7-15

b. Batch forge

5-10

3) Continuous Kiln
a. Hoffman

25-90

b. Tunnel

20-80

4) Ovens
a. Indirect fired ovens (20 oC 370 oC)

35-40

b. Direct fired ovens (20 oC 370 oC)

35-40

42

Training Agenda: Steam

Introduction
Type of furnaces and refractory
materials

Assessment of furnaces
Energy efficiency opportunities

43

Energy Efficiency Opportunities

1. Complete combustion with minimum excess air

2. Proper heat distribution
3. Operation at the optimum furnace temperature
4. Reducing heat losses from furnace openings
5. Maintaining correct amount of furnace draft

6. Optimum capacity utilization

7. Waste heat recovery from the flue gases
8. Minimize furnace skin losses

9. Use of ceramic coatings

10.Selecting the right refractories
44

Energy Efficiency Opportunities

1. Complete Combustion with
Minimum Excess Air
Importance of excess air
Too much: reduced flame temp, furnace
temp, heating rate
Too little: unburnt in flue gases, scale losses

Indication of excess air: actual air /

theoretical combustion air
Optimizing excess air

Control air infiltration

Maintain pressure of combustion air
Ensure high fuel quality
Monitor excess air

45

Energy Efficiency Opportunities

2. Proper Heat Distribution

When using burners
Flame should not touch or be obstructed
No intersecting flames from different burners
Burner in small furnace should face upwards
but not hit roof
More burners with less capacity (not one big
burner) in large furnaces
Burner with long flame to improve uniform
heating in small furnace
46

Energy Efficiency Opportunities

3. Operate at Optimum Furnace

Temperature
Operating at too high temperature:

heat
loss, oxidation, decarbonization, refractory stress

Automatic controls eliminate human

error
Slab Reheating furnaces

1200oC

Rolling Mill furnaces

1200oC

Bar furnace for Sheet Mill

800oC

Bogie type annealing furnaces

650oC 750oC
47

Energy Efficiency Opportunities

4. Reduce Heat Loss from Furnace

Openings
Heat loss through openings
Direct radiation through openings
Combustion gases leaking through the openings
Biggest loss: air infiltration into the furnace

Energy saving measures

Keep opening small
Seal openings
Open furnace doors less frequent and shorter
48

Energy Efficiency Opportunities

5. Correct Amount of Furnace Draft

Negative pressure in furnace: air
infiltration
Maintain slight positive pressure
Not too high pressure difference: air
ex-filtration

Heat loss only about 1% if furnace

pressure is controlled properly!

49

Energy Efficiency Opportunities

6. Optimum Capacity Utilization

Optimum load
Underloading: lower efficiency
Overloading: load not heated to right temp

Optimum load arrangement

Load receives maximum radiation
Hot gases are efficiently circulated
Stock not placed in burner path, blocking flue
system, close to openings

Optimum residence time

Coordination between personnel

Planning at design and installation stage

50

Energy Efficiency Opportunities

7. Waste Heat Recovery from Flue Gases
Charge/Load pre-heating
Reduced fuel needed to heat them in furnace

Pre-heating of combustion air

Applied to compact industrial furnaces
Equipment used: recuperator, selfrecuperative burner
Up to 30% energy savings

Heat source for other processes

Install waste heat boiler to produce steam
Heating in other equipment (with care!)

51

Energy Efficiency Opportunities

8. Minimum Furnace Skin Loss

Choosing appropriate refractories

Increasing wall thickness

Installing insulation bricks (= lower
conductivity)
Planning furnace operating times
24 hrs in 3 days: 100% heat in refractories
lost
8 hrs/day for 3 days: 55% heat lost
52

Energy Efficiency Opportunities

9. Use of Ceramic Coatings

High emissivity coatings
Long life at temp up to 1350 oC
Most important benefits
Rapid efficient heat transfer
Uniform heating and extended refractory life
Emissivity stays constant

Energy savings: 8 20%

53

Energy Efficiency Opportunities

10. Selecting the Right Refractory

Selection criteria
Type of furnace
Type of metal charge

Structural load of
furnace

Presence of slag

Stress due to temp

gradient & fluctuations

Area of application

Chemical compatibility

Working temperatures

Heat transfer & fuel

conservation

Extent of abrasion
and impact

Costs
54