Foundation of Food

Availability and Production

I.

II.

Review of Biogeochemical
and Nutrient Cycles, Energy
Flow and the Food Chain.
The Food System. Local vs.
Global Food System

Part I
Review of Biogeochemical and
Nutrient Cycles, Energy Flow and
the Food Chain

Overview
Ecology: Study of living things and their
environments; also known as environmental
science.
Ecosystem: A dynamic community that
comprising living creatures and environment
within a specified area; contains living elements
and non-living elements.

Overview
Living Elements:
Primary producers: plants, algae
Consumers: primary (herbivores);
secondary (carnivores and omnivores)
Detritivores: scavengers and
decomposers

Overview
Non-Living Elements:
Energy Source: the sun
Climate, wind, weather

Water
Chemicals, such as carbon, nitrogen and
oxygen

Energy Flow
Life is powered by the sun, which is also
responsible for climate, wind, and weather.
About 50% of incoming radiation from sun
reaches the Earths surface.
All energy utilized by organisms comes (or
once came) from the sun.

Energy Flow
The amount of energy received by various
parts of Earths surface is not uniform.
Also, earth is tilted on its axis and rotates
once every 24 hours, and completes an
orbit of the sun about every 365 days

Energy Flow
Temperature variations and forces d/t Earths
rotation establish major patterns of air circulation
and rainfall
The flow of energy through ecosystems is the
most important factor in their organization
Only ~0.1% of solar energy that reaches Earth is
diverted into living systems, but worldwide, it
results in production of about 120 billion tons of
organic matter /year

The Food Chain: Trophic Levels

A sequence of organisms related to one
another as prey and predator
The first is eaten by the second, the
second by the third, etc, in a series of
feeding levels, or trophic levels
In most ecosystems, food chains are
linked in complex food webs

The Food Chain: Trophic Levels

The first trophic level is occupied by primary
producers:
On land, usually plants
In aquatic ecosystems usually algae
These organisms are autotrophs: they can use light
energy to make carbohydrates and other sources of
chemical energy

Producers far outweigh consumers: about 99%

of all organic matter in living world is made up of
plants and algae

The Food Chain: Trophic Levels

Energy enters the animal world through herbivores,
animals that eat plants or algae and are thus primary
consumers
The next level: secondary consumers, made up of
carnivores, animals that eat other animals.
Omnivores include the many organisms that obtain their
food from more than one trophic level
Consumers are heterotrophs, unable to obtain carbon
from carbon dioxide. They obtain carbon by feeding on
the organic material present in other organisms, living or
dead.

The Food Chain: Trophic Levels

Detritivores: live on refuse, or detritus, of
a community
Scavengers, such as vultures, jackals,
crabs, and earthworms
Decomposers, such as fungi and
bacteria

The Food Chain

Energy Flows Through

Ecosystems
Much of the energy captured by plants
is lost as energy passes through the
ecosystem
Example insect: ~17% lost to growth,
~33% to cellular respiration, ~50% to
feces

80% to 95% of the energy available at

one trophic level is not transferred to
the next

Energy loss in an Ecosystem

Food chains usually consist of only three
or four steps
So much energy is lost at each step that
very little energy remains in the system
after it has been incorporated into the
bodies of organisms at four successive
trophic levels

Energy loss in an ecosystem

There are generally far
more individuals at the
lower trophic levels than
at the higher levels
Plants fix about 1% of the
suns energy into organic
molecules

Consumers incorporate
only about 10% of the
energy available in the
organisms they eat

Energy flow thru a 4 trophic

level food chain
Primary producers
90%
Primary consumers
90%

Secondary consumers
90%
Decomposers

H
E
A
T

How does this energy loss

relate to food production?

The Food Chain: Trophic Levels

Populations in community have numerous
interactions with each other, and the non-living
environment. 2 consequences:
A one-way flow of energy through primary
producers to consumers
Cycling of materials, which move from the
non-living environment through the bodies of
living organisms and back to the non-living
environment.
Cycling dependent on decomposers

Biogeochemical Cycles
Many substances cycle through an ecosystem
Movements of inorganic substances are referred
to as biogeochemical cycles because they
involve geological and biological components of
ecosystem. The geological components are:
The atmosphere, made up largely of gases, including
water vapor
The solid crust of the Earth
The oceans, lakes, and rivers, which cover of the
Earths surface

Biogeochemical Cycles
As a result of metabolic work of
decomposers,Inorganic substances are
Released from organic compounds
Returned to soil or water

From soil or water, inorganic substances are:

Taken back into tissues of producers (plants or algae)

Passed along to consumers
Then released to detritivores
From which they enter producers again, repeating
cycle

The Water Cycle

Earths Water:
~98% of the water on Earth is in liquid form, in
oceans, lakes, and streams
~ 2% is frozen in polar ice and glaciers, in soil, in
atmosphere in as vapor, and in bodies of living
organisms

Water moves through the atmosphere, on or

through land, to the ocean, and back to the
atmosphere:
Solar energy evaporates water from oceans,
lakes, ponds, rivers, and streams, moist soil
surfaces, leaves of plants, and bodies of other
organisms

The Water Cycle

Water vapor is carried into the cooler
atmosphere where it condenses into clouds of
liquid water or ice
Eventually it returns to Earths surface as rain or
snow, mostly on oceans
Water falling on land is pulled to oceans by
gravity. Some of it may form ponds, lakes,
streams or rivers, which pour water back into the
ocean

The Water Cycle

Some water falling on land soaks in and
percolates down to a zone of saturation
The top part of this zone is the water table;
below it is ground water. Under the zone of
saturation is solid rock, which the water does not
penetrate
The deep groundwater, moving very slowly,
eventually also reaches the ocean, completing
the water cycle

Carbon Cycle
Begins with the fixation* of atmospheric carbon
dioxide photosynthesis
*Fixation: process by which atmospheric compounds
are converted into forms usable by living organisms

Photosynthesis: The chemical process by which

green plants convert water and carbon dioxide
into food (carbohydrate - CHO) using energy
from sunlight
Some CHO is stored by plant and rest used for
energy

Carbon Cycle
When plant is consumed by an animal,
some carbon is used by the animal, which
respires and releases CO2
When plants and animals die, they are
decomposed by microorganisms in the soil
The carbon in their tissues is then oxidized
and returned to the atmosphere

The Carbon Cycle

Soil nutrient cycles:

Nitrogen Cycle
Organisms require nitrogen - a principle
component of amino acids that form proteins
Most organisms cannot use the main form of
nitrogen gas available in the atmosphere, N2
The bond between the 2 N atoms is hard to break

However some bacteria can fix N2 into

ammonia and nitrate - called nitrogen fixation
Nitrogen-fixing bacteria are found in soil and plant
roots, esp of legumes (beans)

Nitrogen Cycle
Fixed N is absorbed by plants and
incorporated into plant protein
Animals eat the plants
N reenters the ecosystem thru animal
excretion and decomposition
The availability of fixed N in soils is limited
Farmers supplement their fields by adding Nrich fertilizers or compost or manure

The Nitrogen Cycle

Soil Nutrient Cycles:

Phosphorus
Phosphorous is another soil nutrient that is
important to organisms because it is a key part
of both ATP and DNA
Phosphorous does not form a gas and is not
available in the atmosphere
Most of the phosphorous in ecosystems is found
in organisms
This non-gaseous cycle occurs in both
terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems

Phosphorus cycle
In terrestrial ecosystem:
Phosphorus released from dead tissues by
activities of decomposers,
Taken up from soil by plants,
And cycled through ecosystem

Phosphorus cycle continued

In aquatic ecosystems:
Phosphorus is in shells and skeletons of
aquatic organisms
These are subsequently incorporated into
sedimentary rock
Then returned to land surface w/ geological
uplift
To become primary terrestrial reservoir of
phosphorus

The Phosphorus Cycle

How Ecosystems Work

Watch a short video (3:23) illustrating
Energy Flow and nutrient cycling:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o_RBHfj
ZsUQ

Food for Thought

Concern: human activities are
straining the natural resource
system
Exceeding crucial limits called
thresholds
Resulting in instability and
environmental deterioration

Food for Thought

Living organisms exist in nature in a state of
balance with one another
Their existence is ruled by the Law of Limiting
Factors:
All organisms require minimum quantity of essentials
such as nutrients, heat, light, space etc.
The size of any population is ultimately limited by one
or more environmental factors
There is a complex web of interrelationships
Excessive change imposes a serious threat to
existence

Part II
The Food System
Local vs. Global Food System

The Food System

Everything involved in:
Creating food

Its journey from the farm to the table

Post-production/consumption waste
products

The Food System

The process by which food is:
1. Produced on a farm or fishery
2. Transformed by processing
3. Made available for purchase
4. Consumed, and
5. Eventually discarded

The Food System

Global Food System includes world-wide:
Food production
Distribution
Consumption

Local Food System integrated with regional,

national, and global food system.
Local food system is more independent from
outside world

Food System Inputs

An input is put into a machine or system where it
is converted into output. Examples of inputs:
Natural Resources: soil, water, seeds, fertilizer,
pesticides, compost, nonrenewable fuels
Farm machinery, factories, and
transportation systems used for production,
processing, and distribution
Human resources:
labor, research, and education

Food Production
Making or creating goods for consumption
Food produced in farms, greenhouses,
orchards, and bodies of water
Seasonal rhythm to production (growing
season):
Fruits, vegetables, and grains are harvested at
particular times of the year
Most animal foods can be raised and harvested year
round (dairy, beef, poultry)

Food Transformation
Change in structure, composition, character,
or condition
Processing occurs in factories, restaurants, and
kitchens
Transformed to be edible
For use in variety of products
Longer storage and shelf-life
(yogurt and cheese)
Increased nutritional value (fortified cereals)
Decreased nutritional value (potato chips)

Distribution
Food products and ingredients are transported:
1. From the site of production to a different site for
processing and packaging
2. To warehouses for storage
3. To distribution centers.
4. To retail outlets, or food service facilities.

Currently, food is transported to many parts of

the world for various steps, and sometimes
transported back to where it came from

Access to Food
Consumers come in contact with food at:
Retail outlets, restaurants, and other food
service operations
Emergency food systems (food banks,
community shelters, soup kitchens, etc)
Food assistance programs (food stamps,
WIC, etc.)

Consumption
Purchasing and eating food. Factors
involved in consuming food:
Cost of food
Taste
Appearance
Nutritional value
Convenience

Food System Outputs

Food is the desired output. Unwanted outputs
are:
Garbage - Food packaging a significant
component of garbage
Some packaging can be reused or recycled.
Food scraps can be reused and recycled by
composting

Pollution - Created when inputs like pesticides

and fertilizers run off into water ways, or when
fossil fuels are used on farm machinery

From Wheat to Wheaties

Increasing Complexity of the

Food System
Forces that Shape the Food System:
Government policies and regulations, requires
machinery, fossil fuel, and labor
Economics: cost of the inputs, and the price that
the consumers will be willing to pay
Society and culture
Use of automated machines, bar code scanners,
etc.
Waste management: Research and technology
to organize, pick up, and handle waste

Concerns about todays food

system
Food system feeds more people than ever before,
provides for millions of jobs in the U.S. but:
Although most Americans have access to an
abundant, safe, and affordable supply of food,
some do not have sufficient access to food
Warning signs: food system vulnerable
Food safety issues
Animal welfare
Consumers influence the food system (can be
good or bad)

Food system: environmental

degradation

Water pollution
Soil erosion
Air pollution
Fossil fuel depletion
Enormous amount of waste

Local vs Global Food System

Your food travels more than you do! Is that
a good idea?
Northern Climates
Fresh produce available in warm seasons
Canned, frozen and dried fruits and veggies available
in winter
Winter fruits and veggies available from afar
Nonrenewable resource such as energy best
conserved when local grown produce is consumed

Food Miles
Food miles are the distance food travels from
where it is grown or raised to where purchased
by the consumer
Study in Iowa compared food miles in hotel
meals using local vs conventional produce
Average food miles for Iowa-grown produce
items was 56 miles
Average food miles for produce purchased
conventionally was 1494 miles
Consumers value freshness above all

Food Miles

Food Miles
High cost of energy to transport and maintain
freshness of perishable foods thousands of
miles across oceans and national borders
Increased greenhouse gas emission for
transportation
Even in the USA, it is risky to count on west
coast to keep providing; Californias best
agricultural land under severe development
pressures

Food Miles and Organics

Issues with the organic label:
Local farmers get organic premium by
selling to consumers directly at farmers
markets etc.
Current regulation of organics is done by
the USDA, but rules allow larger, distant
corporations to enter organic food
production and compete with local farmers

Food Miles and Food Safety

FDA inspection is done on only about 1% of the
produce brought in to the US from other
countries
Thus consumer is left to decide: is it unsafe to
eat produce from a country with a water system
you would not feel safe drinking?

Eating Locally
Creates sustainability of local food supply
Keeps local farmers in business
May provide more guarantee that food is not
contaminated. Recent contamination examples:
Salmonella in peanuts
E.coli-tainted spinach,
Beef recalls (latest one in Missouri last week)

May provide more nutritious food (decreased

vitamin C loss)
Some options: Farmers markets, Communitysupported agriculture (CSA)

Local Foods: OTOH

British study found local grain-fed lamb
used more energy than grass-fed lamb
brought from New Zealand
Many lightly loaded truck trips vs one fully
loaded large truck
Tomatoes produced locally in heated
greenhouse vs tomatoes grown in warmer
climate and shipped in

Seafood
Oceans have been widely over fished
Some fishing methods have a negative
impact on environment/species:
Dredging / trawling destroys habitat
Purse seining aka gillnetting results in a
large amount of bycatch (unintended catch
like sea turtles, marine mammals, etc)

Purse Seine Fishing

Seafood
Fish availability is declining worldwide.
Fish farming (aquaculture) has problems as
well:
Open net pens allow waste from fish to pollute the
water
Shrimp pond construction has destroyed 3.7 million
acres of coastal habitat
Shellfish culture can allow introduction of exotic
species to compete with natural species

Environmental Risks of
Aquaculture

Seafood Guidance
Monterey Bay Aquarium
http://www.mbayaq.org/cr/cr_seafoodwatc
h/sfw_gear.asp
Environmental Defense Fund Seafood
Selector
http://www.edf.org/page.cfm?tagID=1521