CHAPTER

Network Hardware

Chapter Objectives
Describe the important basic network
hardware and the internetworking
hardware
Discuss the desired characteristics of a
server and a workstation
Present different switching technologies
Examine the routing process with the
help of an example

Introduction
Module 1
(4-06)

Network Hardware Categories

Local networking hardware
Internetworking hardware

Local Networking Hardware

Network Interface Cards (NICs)
Cables
Connectors
Line drivers or repeaters
Hubs / Switches
Servers
Workstations

Internetworking Hardware
Line drivers or repeaters
Transceivers
Bridges
Switches
Routers
Gateways

Current Day Internetworking

Devices
Mostly confined to the following:
Switches
Routers

Folding of Devices into Switches

Show Diagram

Folding of Devices into routers

Show Diagram

Manageable Devices
Switches and routers in a large network
can be managed from a remote console

End of Module

MODULE

Network Interface Cards (NICs)

NIC Basics
Technology used
Connectors used
Speed of the network
Interface technologies

An Actual NIC Description

100BaseTX, PCI card

100 = speed in Mbps

Base =Ethernet
TX = Twisted pair
32-bit = bus width; it may also be 64-bit
wide
PCI = bus technology

10BaseT NIC
10BaseT cards

Physical star and logical bus networks

10 Mbps speed
Ethernet standard
Twisted pair wiring
RJ-45 Connectors

10Base2 NIC
10base2 cards

Physical bus and logical bus networks

10 Mbps speed
Ethernet standard
Thin coaxial wiring
BNC connectors

10Base5 NICs
10Base5

Physical bus and logical star networks

10 Mbps speed
Ethernet standard
Thick coaxial wiring
AUI connectors are used

Note: 10BaseT, 10Base2 and 10Base5 are

not used widely in practice anymore

100BaseTX NIC
100BaseTX
100 Mbps speed
Fast Ethernet standard
Twisted pair
Higher quality Category 5 wires are normally
required to implement 100 mbps Ethernet
networks

1000BaseT NICs
1000BaseT
1000 Mbps
Ethernet
Twisted-pair wire
Category 5e

1000BaseF
1000 Mbps
Ethernet
Optical fiber wire

1000BaseT NIC
Source: 3Com

Note the RJ-45 connection and the

status lights on the card

Gigabit Ethernet Fiber NIC

Source: 3Com

Note the two connectors for

the RX and TX connections
For use with PCI and PCI-X
servers

Gigabit Ethernet NIC Properties

(Source: 3Com)
Tenfold throughput boost: accelerate Fast Ethernet
server connections to 1000 Mbps
Fiber-optic cabling supports data security and faster
throughput
Automatic link aggregation and fail-over allow
multiple NIC connections to be installed
Advanced server features maximize availability,
scalability, and fault tolerance

Gigabit Ethernet NIC Properties

(Source: 3Com)
64-bit PCI and PCI-X support: faster transmissions
with lower CPU utilization
Centralized, standards-compliant management
lowers network administration time and total cost of
ownership
TCP/UDP/IP checksum offloads reduce host CPU
load for improved system performance
PCI Hot-Plug lets you remove/replace server NICs
without taking the server offline

Token Ring Cards

Token ring network cards
Earlier token ring cards
4/1 Mbps

Later token ring cards

16/4 Mbps

Newer token ring cards

Fast token ring networks
100/16/4 Mbps

PCI Bus Types for NICs

Width
Bus width is 32-bit or 64-bit

Bus frequency
33 MHz
66 MHz
100 MHz etc.

Technology
PCI
PCI-X
PCI Express

Source: Tomshardware:
www6.tomshardware.com/howto/02q3/020904/diy-06.html

Cable Connections for NICs

BNC barrel connector
Thin coaxial

RJ 45
Twisted pair

Note the difference between RJ 11 and RJ-45

RJ-11 is smaller and it is used in telephone
connection
RJ-45 is larger and it is used in LAN connections

Different Coax Connectors

Coaxial Cable Connectors

T connector

Thin coaxial
cable

Terminator

Network
Interface
Card

BNC

AUI and Combo Cable

Connections for NICs
AUI Possibilities
Designed for a thick coaxial cable
Designed for a token ring network

Combo Cards
Consisting of different ports
BNC, RJ-45, AUI

RJ-45 Connectors

RJ-45 Port

RJ-45 Connector

Possible Combo Card

Connections
Thin coaxial cables (BNC)
Twisted pair wires (RJ-45)
Phone connection (RJ11)
Thick coaxial cables (AUI)

Wireless Network Interface

Cards
IEEE 802.11b
2.4 GHz, 11 Mbps

IEEE 802.11b+, IEEE 802.11g?

2.4 GHz, up to 20% more throughput

IEEE 802.11a
5.8 GHz, 54 Mbps

IEEE 802.11g
2.4 GHz, 54 Mbps, 108 Mbps (Full duplex)?

IEEE 802.11n

Example of Older 10Base2 Card

BNC

Source: Black Box

Example of Older 10BaseT Card

ISA
RJ 45

Source: Black Box

Example of Older Combo Card

RJ 45
Combo

Source: Black Box

BNC

D-Link Fast Ethernet Card

(100BaseTX)

D-Link 100BaseTX Specs

(Source D-Link)
A manageable 10/100MB Dual Speed
Ethernet PCI Network Interface Card with
Wake-On-LAN (WOL)
Fully compliant with IEEE802.3 10Base-T,
IEEE 802.3u 100Base-T specifications
Supports ACPI/WOL (Advanced
Configuration Power Management Interface)
feature, IP Multicast packet filtering, PXE
(PreBoot execution Environment) Boot ROM,
IEEE 802.1p, IEEE 802.1Q, and DMI (Desktop
Management Interface).

A Note on Remote Wake on LAN

(Source: Intel)
A remote wake-up technology that enables
you to remotely power systems "on" for offhours maintenance. A result of the Intel-IBM
Advanced Manageability Alliance and part of
the Wired for Management Baseline
Specification, this technology helps save time
on automated software installations,
upgrades, disk backups and virus scans.
Equally important, it increases end-user
productivity by moving such planned
disruptions to off-hours.

Fast Ethernet PC Multi-Port

Card

NIC and
modem connections

Fast Ethernet Card Specs.

The D-Link DMF-560TX is a 10/100Mb Dual Speed Ethernet PC Card with
an integrated V.90/K56flex Data/Fax Modem. The DMF-560TX is targeted
at notebook and laptop users that connect to a wide variety of datacommunications devices and services, and require access to faster
technologies. Laptop users are able to seamlessly connect to both Ethernet
and Fast Ethernet LANs, as well as send and receive faxes, connect to the
Internet, and dial into a Remote Access Server or PC using this one
PCMCIA PC Card solution.
The DMF-560TX strictly adheres to the IEEE Ethernet standards and the
ITU Data Communications and Modem standards in order to ensure
maximum interoperability. The DMF-560TX attempts to connect at the
highest speed supported by an ISP, LAN, host modem, or fax machine and
automatically defaults to a lower speed until a stable connection can be
created.

Fast Ethernet Card Operational

Specs.
Modem Operating Protocols
V.90 (down-stream up to 56,000 bps)
K56flex (down-stream up to 56,000 bps)
V.34bis (up to 33,600 bps)
V.34 (2,400 to 28,800 bps)
V.32bis, V.32, V.22bis, V.23, V.22/Bell 212A, V.21/Bell 103
Error Correction Data Compression
V.42/V.42bis and MCP Class 2 to 5
Fax Compatibility
Group 3 send and receive
EIA Class 1 fax commands
V.17 (14,400 bps), V.29 (9600 bps), V.27ter (4800 bps),
V.21 (300bps)

Token Ring Adapter (NIC)

Note the connector type.

Ethernet to Token Ring Bridge

Wireless PC Card Adapter

Wireless PC Card Specs

D-LinkAir DWL-650 PC Card Type-II
11Mbps Wireless LAN Adapter
The D-Link DWL-650 is an IEEE 802.11b compliant PC Card Type-II
11Mbps wireless LAN adapter. The DWL-650 will operate in 2.4 GHz
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) for wireless networks in the
home or office environment. It is designed to operate in 3.3V or 5.0V DC
slots. In addition, the DWL-650 uses a 64/128-bit WEP (Wired Equivalent
Privacy) Encryption for a secure network connection.
The D-Link DWL-650 can operate in either Ad-Hoc mode (Peer-to-Peer
networking without access point) or Infrastructure mode (Peer-to-Peer
networking using an access point). In Infrastructure mode, the DWL-650
can be connected to a broadband residential gateway or a DSL/Cable
modem for high-speed wireless Internet access on the existing network.

Wireless PC Card Specs

The DWL-650 can transmit data at 11, 5.5, 2 or 1 Mbps per
channel. The DWL-650 transmit rate values can be manually
selected for Auto Select 1 or 2 Mbps, Fixed 1 Mbps, Fixed 11
Mbps, Fixed 2 Mbps, Fixed 5.5 Mbps and Fully Auto. The
DWL-650 has full mobility and seamless roaming from cell to
cell as well as across access points. The range of coverage per
cell for indoor use is up to 328 feet and up to 984 feet per cell
for outdoor use.
The DWL-650 comes with an internal non-detachable diversity
patch antenna and one built-in green LED indicator for power,
network link and activity. The DWL-650 is compatible with
Windows 98, Windows ME, Windows 2000, Windows XP.

Wireless PCI Card

Wireless PCI Card Specs

The D-LinkAir DWL-520 is an IEEE 802.11b wireless PCI
adapter. The DWL-520 provides an integrated PCI solution
that will operate within the 2.4 GHz Direct Sequence Spread
Spectrum (DSSS) for wireless networks in the home or office
environment. Along with the advanced wireless technology
that is incorporated into the DWL-520, wide range
motherboard support is assured by compliance to the latest
PCI 2.2 standard interface. The DWL-520 is the solution for
users and network administrators looking for the convenience
offered by a wireless connection.

Wireless PCI Card Specs Cont.

The D-Link DWL-520 can operate in either Ad-Hoc mode (Peer-toPeer networking without an access point) or Infrastructure
mode (Peer-to-Peer networking using an access point). In
Infrastructure mode, the DWL-520 can be connected to a
wireless residential gateway with a broadband connection to
enable wireless sharing of the High-speed Internet access.
The DWL-520 can transmit data at rates of 11Mpbs, 5.5Mbps, 2Mps
and 1 Mbps per channel. With its detachable antenna using a
reverse SMA connector, the DWL-520 has an effective range of
up to 230 feet for indoor use and up to 984 feet in an outdoor
environment. In addition, the DWL-520 supports 64/128-bit
WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy) Encryption for network
security.

Wireless 5 GHz

Wireless 5 GHz Specs

Next generation of wireless products with its highperformance D-LinkAir Pro series of 5GHz networking
technology.
Designed for indoor use, the D-LinkAir Pro DWL-A650 is a
powerful notebook PC CardBus adapter that allows users to
have mobile access to networks. It provides roaming
capabilities from cell to cell and network to network.
At 54 Megabits per second (Mbps), the D-LinkAir Pro DWLA650 5GHz high speed wireless CardBus adapter delivers the
fastest standards-based wireless technology in the industry.
With IEEE 802.11a standard compliance, the D-LinkAir Pro
DWL-A650 high-speed wireless adapter provides excellent
network interoperability.

Wireless 5 GHz Specs

(Continued)
A proprietary Turbo mode allows the D-LinkAir Pro DWLA650 to operate at significantly greater data rates up to 72Mpbs.
Eight non-overlapping channels create less interference, which
supplies higher average cell throughput to clients. The DLinkAir Pro DWL-A650 employs enhanced 152-bit Wired
Equivalent Privacy (WEP) and Dynamic Key Exchange to
protect data from unauthorized access.
The D-LinkAir Pro DWL-A650 is easily installed into a laptop
PC to provide connectivity directly to another wireless enabled
device (ad-hoc mode) or through an 802.11a based access point
(infrastructure mode).

END OF MODULE

MODULE
NIC Resources

NIC Resources
IRQ
I/O address
Base memory address, if provided
DMA, if provided

IRQ
Must be unique for each device, unless
it is steered
IRQ steering

An NIC requires an IRQ

IRQ is used to gain the attention of the
CPU
There are a limited number of IRQs
available on a computer

IRQ Assignment (learnthat.com)

IRQ

Device

Timer

Keyboard

Wired to IRQ 9

COM 2 (COM 4)

COM 1 (COM 3)

Available (often LPT2, sound cards, or network cards)

Floppy Disk Controller

LPT1

Clock

Wired to IRQ 2

10

Unused

11

Unused

12

Mouse Port

13

Coprocessor

14

Hard Disk Controller

15

Unused

I/O Address
Must be unique to each device
Each device of port must have an I/O
address
The NIC must have an I/O Address as
well

Common I/O Address

Assginemnt (learnthat.com)
Address (Hex)
00-0F
20-21
40-43
1F0-1F8
200-20F
238-23B
278-27F
2E8-2EF
2F8-2FF
300-30F
330-33F
378-37F
3E8-3EF
3F0-3F7
3F8-3FF

Device
DMA Controller
Interrupt Controller
Timer
Hard Disk Controller
Joystick Controller
Bus Mouse
LPT2
COM4 Serial Port
COM2 Serial Port
Ethernet Card
MIDI Port
LPT1 Port
COM3 Serial Port
Floppy Disk Controller
COM1 Serial Port

I/O Address
(www.techencylopedia.com )
There is a 64K address space for I/O
addresses, although typically less than 1K is
used. Each board that uses an I/O address
contains a few bytes of memory (16, 32, etc.)
set to a default address range. One or more
alternate addresses is also provided to
resolve conflicts with other boards. These I/O
spaces are a bunch of tiny memory banks
scattered over different devices. As long as
each one is set to a different address, the
CPU can transmit signals to the appropriate
boards without conflict.

I/O Address Continued

(www.techencylopedia.com )
An I/O address operation takes place as
follows. If a program needs to send a byte to
the serial port, it issues an OUT instruction to
the CPU with the address of that serial port.
The CPU notifies the address bus to activate
the I/O space, not regular memory, and the
address bus signals the appropriate byte
location on the board. The CPU then sends
the data character over the data bus to that
memory location.

Base Memory Address

Must have a unique range for the NIC
card
Some older cards did not require the
base memory address to be specified

DMA
Direct Memory Access
Channels are assigned for DMA
Not all the NIC cards have DMA
Newer PCI technologies used for
expansion slots have made DMA
somewhat obsolete

DMA Use (Source

learnthat.com)
In most PCs, there are 8 DMA Channels.
In most modern PCs, DMA shouldn't be used
as it just slows it down. But, older PCs may
use DMA.
Channels 4-7 are usually available, while
Channel 0 is used to refresh DRAM, Channel
1 is used by a hard disk controller or sound
card, and Channel 2 is usually used by the
floppy disk controller.

Resource Allocation on a NIC

Examining the Network

Resources

Device Manager

NIC

Resources

Properties

END OF MODULE

MODULE
Network Connectors and Hubs

Simple Connectors
T connectors
An interface between the NIC and the
cables

Terminators
Used at both ends of a bus network
T Connector

Terminator

Example of T-Connector and

Terminator

T Connector

Source: Black Box

Terminator

Connectors : Hubs
Types
Passive hub
Active hub
Intelligent hub

Passive hubs
Simply provides the physical and the electrical
connection for the network

Active hubs
A Multi-port device
Amplifies LAN signals

Manageable hubs
Has built-in manageability
Some are manageable hubs

Connectors : Passive Hub

MAU

WS

WS

Hub Connecting A Token-ring Network

WS

A Manageable Hub/ Switches

WS
Backbone

WS

WS

Remote
Workstation
Remote Monitor

Active Hub

LAN Management Software

Sophisticated
Monitor the network traffic through
each of the ports
Becoming popular
Standardized protocol for remote
management exists
SNMP (Simple Network Management
Protocol)

SNMP
A major protocol used in the
management of networks
A number of LAN management
software is based on the SNMP protocol

SNMP Cont. (Source: Cisco)

The Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) is an
application-layer protocol designed to facilitate the exchange of
management information between network devices.
By using SNMP-transported data (such as packets per second
and network error rates), network administrators can more easily
manage network performance, find and solve network problems,
and plan for network growth.
SNMP is a relatively simple protocol, yet its feature set is
sufficiently powerful to handle the difficult problems presented in
trying to manage today's heterogeneous networks.
Today, SNMP is the most popular protocol for managing diverse
commercial internetworks as well as those used in universities
and research organizations.

SNMP Cont.
Like the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), SNMP
is an Internet protocol.
There are two versions of SNMP: Version 1 and
Version 2.

Most of the changes introduced in Version 2

increase SNMP's security capabilities. Other changes
increase interoperability by more rigorously defining
the specifications for SNMP implementation.

SNMP's creators believe that after a relatively brief

period of coexistence, SNMP Version 2 (SNMPv2)
will largely replace SNMP Version 1 (SNMPv1).

Web Research
Obtain additional information on the
following LAN troubleshooting
software
LAN Analyzer
LAN Sniffer

Example of a Hub Used in Ring

Network

Source: Black Box

Example of Hubs Used in the

Star Network

Stackable
Hubs

Source: Black Box

END OF MODULE

Web Research
Photonic switching
www.agilent.com/comms/photonicswitch
www.cnn.com/tech

MODULE
Server and Workstation
Hardware

Module Objectives
Give an overview of the different types
of the server hardware
Discuss the desired characteristics of a
server
Provide a specification for a
workstation

Servers
Types
Powerful micros
Servers
Super-servers
Mini and large computers are used as
servers
In a client-server environment, the server
also acts as an engine for database execution
In general, the server is used for the sharing
of stored data and application

Desired Characteristics of Server:

Processor and Storage
Requirement
Powerful processor
Latest Pentium Processor for example
Multiple processors, if necessary

Large storage space

Several gigabytes at a minimum
Actual requirement will vary with LAN size

Fast disk access speed

Less than 10 ms, for example

Versatile CD-ROM access (Towers)

Fault tolerance

Processors

Intel Pentium 4, 32-bit processors

Intel Itanium 64-bit processors
Special Xeon processors meant for servers
Multiple processors
Symmetric Multi-Processing (SMP)

Other processors
Spark (Sun), AMD, Motorola, IBMs own
processors etc.

Symmetric Multiprocessing
(SMP) Source: Search390.com
SMP (symmetric multiprocessing) is the
processing of programs by multiple
processors that share a common operating
system and memory. In symmetric (or
"tightly coupled") multiprocessing, the
processors share memory and the I/O bus or
data path. A single copy of the operating
system is in charge of all the processors. SMP,
also known as a "shared everything" system,
does not usually exceed 16 processors.

Chip Set
Chip sets designed for servers to boost
I/O operation

Hard Disk Technologies

SCSI
ATA
Serial ATA (SATA)
Fiber channel storage
RAID

Overview of Storage
Technologies
SCSI, Small Computer Systems Interface, is widely
used in mid- to high- performance workstations and
servers.
SCSI offers faster transfer rates than ATA/IDE, the
interface most commonly used in desktop PCs.
In general, ATA/IDE is considered easier to
implement and less expensive than SCSI but does
not offer as many features.
For example, SCSI can support up to 16 devices on a single
bus (IDE offers two), generally offers faster throughput, uses
less CPU horsepower during operation, and is therefore
more efficient in demanding multiple initiator applications for
multi-users and uses. This is significant because it allows the
processor to perform more commands at one time making
for greater efficiency.

SCSI Standards
S
C
SI

Fast
SCSI

Ultra
SCSI

Wide
Ultra
SCSI

Ultra2
SCSI

Wide
Ultra2
SCSI

Ultra3
SCSI

Data transfer rates max.

Bus speed (MB/sec)

10

20

40

40

80

160

Maximum Data Bus

width (bits)

8bit

8-bit

8-bit

16-bit

8-bit

16-bit

16-bit

Max. cable length

(meters)

1.5 - 3

1.5 - 3

12

12

12

Max. device support

8-4

8-4

16

16

SCSI Terms (source: IBM)

The SCSI terms Fast, Ultra, or Ultra2 typically
refer to data rate increases that move data
faster on the bus, while the term Wide refers
to adding more lanes to the bus, typically
transferring 16 bits of data at one time rather
than eight bits. Other differences between the
standards include the maximum cable length
and the number of devices that can exist on
the same SCSI bus.

Ultra 3 SCSI (source: IBM)

As one of the recent developments in SCSI, Ultra3 SCSI
presents significant feature and benefit enhancements
over Ultra2 SCSI products. Ultra3 SCSI products are
designed to offer, at a minimum, the following features:
Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) , domain validation ,
and double transition clocking , none of which are
available in Ultra2 SCSI products.
These features are designed to improve speed,
performance, and overall manageability of SCSI.

Ultra 160 (source: IBM)

The subset of Ultra3 that includes the three
features, Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) ,

domain validation , and double transition

clocking , is commonly called Ultra160, for its

speed 160MB per/sec. The main difference

between Ultra3 and Ultra160 is that Ultra3
implementations may offer other features in
addition to those listed above.

ATA
The term ATA stands for Advanced Technology
Attachment, for the standard bus interface on the
original IBM AT computer. This interface also is
called IDE, for Integrated Drive Electronics; ATA is
the official ANSI (American National Standard
Institute) standard designation.
Also known as Ultra DMA, ATA is generally the
least expensive hard drive interface; many computer
motherboards include ATA controllers and cable
connectors that typically control the "C" drive that
contains the operating system. However, ATA is a
slightly slower drive interface, so it is used primarily
in single user computer applications or low-end
RAID systems.

ATA Variations
ATA/

ATA-2

Ultra-ATA/33 Ultra-ATA/66

Data transfer rates

max. Bus speed
(MB/sec)

8.3

16.6

33

66

Maximum Data Bus

width (bits)

16-bit

16-bit

16-bit

16-bit

Max. device support

Serial ATA (SATA)

Fiber-Channel
Fiber Channel - Arbitrated Loop (FC-AL) is
an exceptionally high-bandwidth industrystandard interface primarily targeted toward
high-end servers and similar demanding
applications.
FC-AL uses fiber optic cabling in a loop
configuration to produce maximum transfer
speeds of 100 MB/second and is designed to
connect up to 127 devices as far as 10
kilometers apart, enabling data storage in
remote, secure locations distant from the
server.

More on Fiber Channel

FC-AL devices can be dual ported, providing
two simultaneous input/output sessions that
doubles maximum throughput, and FC-AL
enables "hot swapping," so you can add and
remove hard drives without interrupting
system operation, an important option in
server environments.
FC-AL adapters tend to cost more than SCSI
adapters.

PCI BUS Technology

PCI is preferred
32-bit and 64-bits

PCI-X
An extension to the PCI Bus interface

General PCI standards

PCI 1.0, 2.0 and 3.0

PCI Express

A Note on PCI-X 2.0

(Source PCISIG)
PCI-X 2.0 is an evolutionary, backward
compatible technology that builds on the
foundation of PCI and PCI-X while offering
bandwidths 4 times higher than PCI-X
without increasing pin-count.
These new, higher bandwidths are ideal for
server-oriented adapter cards in the areas of
Fibre Channel, RAID, networking,
InfiniBand Architecture, SCSI, iSCSI, and
other high-bandwidth technologies.

PCI-X 2.0 Performance

Advantage (Source PCISIG)
Doubles and Quadruples PCI-X
bandwidth.
Enables 10Gb Ethernet, 10Gb Fiber
Channel, InfiniBand Architecture,
and other IO technologies.
Performance 32 times higher than the
first generation of PCI.

Desired Characteristics of Server:

Bus and Memory Technologies
Better bus technology
PCI

Memory
In excess of 512 Mbytes
SDRAM or similar memory technology
functioning at 10 nanoseconds or less
The 168-pin SDRAM is also known as the DIMM
chips as opposed to the 72-pin SIMM chips
182 DDR RAM
Rambus RAM

Desired Characteristics of Server:

Reliability
Good back-up facilities
Back-up tape

Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS)

Fault Tolerant Feature for

Servers
RAID storage technology
A system based on multiple disk
Hot-swappable disks

Redundant power supply

Hot-swappable power supply

Hot Pluggable and Hot

Swappable
Hot Pluggable
When a card or a device is plugged into the
computer (PCI), the computer will recognize the
device automatically and install the device
An example is a NIC

Hot Swappable
A device that can be removed and replaced
without having switch off the computer
An example is a hard drive

Workstation
Most applications are executed at the
workstation in the case of a file server
Therefore, it must be powerful in terms
of the processor and the memory
As a rule of thumb, the workstation
must be as powerful as it were to be
used as a standalone unit to run the
applications

Workstation Processor and

Memory
Powerful processor
Pentium class processor

Adequate memory
32 Mbytes or more
DIMM preferred although fast EDO SIMM
may also be used

Workstation Storage and

Compatibility
Sufficient storage
Storage in gigabytes
Important in a client-server environment
Front-end tools are stored on the
workstation
Speed of storage
Ultra DMA or SCSI preferred
EIDE may also be used
Hardware components with appropriate
drivers for the client operating system

Reliability
Power surge protector
Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS),
for critical applications

END OF MODULE

MODULE

Repeater

An Overview of Repeaters
Used for extending the physical span of
a network
An example is the extension of the distance
between a hub and a node

Span is often limited by design

considerations
10base5
The span is limited to 500 meters

A Repeater Connection

Expanding the Span of the Network

Source: Black Box

Another Example of Repeater

Connection

Extending the distance between the backbone and the nodes.

Source: Black Box

Current Day Use of Repeaters

Fiber optic repeaters are used for
extending the distance between two
nodes in a link or a network

Operations of a Repeater Within

the ISO OSI Model
Operates at the lower level of the ISO
OSI model, namely layer 1
Physical layer
Physical
Layer
Medium

Repeater

Physical
Layer
Medium

Other Devices Used for

Extending the Span of a Network
Line Drivers
Short-Haul Modems

Another Layer 1 Device

Hub
This is simply an electrical connecting
device used in the configuration of a
network
The topology in this case would be that of a
star topology

END OF MODULE

MODULE

Bridge

An Overview of a Bridge
A device used for connecting two LANs
operating usually under the same protocol
There are bridges that connect LAN segments
operating under different protocols

Currently, the term bridge is loosely being

used to describe different interconnecting
devices
Used now for connecting LANs operating under
different protocols as well

Purpose of a Bridge
Facilitate the movement of data packet
from one network segment to another
Not a sophisticated internetworking
device
Bridge does not perform the routing of
information to different segments of a
network
Connects two network segments and
not multiple network segments

Bridge : ISO-OSI Layer of

Operation
Data
Link
Layer

Data
Link
Layer

Bridge

Physical
Layer

Physical
Layer

X Medium

X Medium

A simple bridge operates at the

second layer of the ISO model.

Practical Bridge Implementations

Local Bridge
Remote Bridge

Local and Remote Bridges

Local bridge
Connects two different LANs located
locally

Remote bridge
Connects LAN segments that are
geographically apart
An example is a device that provide dialup access to a LAN

A Practical Bridge Example

END OF MODULE

MODULE
Switch

Switch Definition and Purpose

A switch is defined as a device that
allows a LAN to be segmented
The segments will operate under the same
protocol

Difference Between a Switch and

a Bridge
A switch focuses on segmenting a LAN
A bridge is concerned with linking two
network segments that operate under
different protocols

Purpose of a Switch
Improve the network performance and
reliability
Better manage the network in general

Switch : ISO-OSI Layer of

Operation
Data
Link
Layer

Data
Link
Layer

Switch

Physical
Layer

Physical
Layer

X Medium

X Medium

A simple Switch operates at the

second layer of the ISO model.

Layer 3 Switches
Some switches operate at Layer 3 of the
ISO-OSI model
These switches perform routing as well

Performance Improvement in
Segmented Networks
Performance is improved especially in the
case of a bus network
Multiple bus paths are now available for
communication
Each segment can engage in simultaneous
communication within itself
Easier to isolate a problem to a segment
Thus, better manage the entire network

Network Reliability
When one segment does not function,
the other segments can continue to
function
Offers better reliability to at least part of
the function

Switches in Ethernet and Token

Ring LANs
Switches were originally designed for
segmenting Ethernet LANs
Used extensively in configuring large
Ethernet bus LANs
Physically the network configured would still
largely remain based on the star topology

Switches are now available for token

ring networks as well

Use of Switches in Linking LAN

Segments
Crossover Traffic
Switch
Segment 2

Segment 1
Hub

WS

Server

Hub

WS

Server

Using A Switch to
Link Bus LAN Segments
Switch

Segment 1

Segment 2

Use of Switches in
Internetworking
Because the typical inter-networking
connection involves multiple segments,
the use of a switch is more common
than the use of a bridge

Use of Switches for Higher

Bandwidth
100 MBps Switch

WS

WS

WS

WS

Each port in theory has a bandwidth of 100 Mbps.

END OF MODULE

MODULE
Switching Technology

Module Objectives
Explain the basic operation of a switch
List the switching technologies and
describe their operation
Cut-through and store-and-forward
technologies

The Basic Operation of Switches

Receivers Address Senders Address Data

A data packet is analyzed

Receivers addresses is checked
If it indicates the receiver to be in the
same segment, the packet is dropped
If it indicates the receiver to be in a
different segment, the packet is

Switching Technologies
There are two major types of switching
technologies
Cut-through
Store-and-forward

Cut-Through Technology
Reads only part of the packet
The addresses header
Packet is forwarded accordingly

Bad packets are not filtered

Faster
Less error checking

Store-and-Forward Technology
Entire packet is processed
Packets are filtered
Bad packets are filtered

Slower
More error checking

Switching Technology
Comparison
Header

Senders Add
Cut-through
Store-and-forward

Receivers Add

Data

Switching Technology Operation

at the ISO Layer
In each of the two cases of switching
technologies no protocol conversion
takes place
Forwarding and filtering are done at the
MAC layer
A switch switches the traffic based on
MAC address

Web Research
Fiber channel
Clustering
Load Balancing

END OF MODULE

MODULE
Routers

The Purpose of a Router

Connect LANs operating under
different protocols
The LANs connected are better known
as sub-networks instead of network
segments
The term segments is nevertheless used in
practice
Each segment basically represents a subnet

Router Characteristics
A router is a true internetworking device
Connects different sub-networks together

Establishes a logical path of communication

between the sub-networks
Contributes to the modular construction of a
network
Network itself is better managed
Network resources are better utilized

Internetworking with a Router

IEEE 802.3
Sub-network

Router

PC-NFS
Sub-network

IEEE 802.5
Sub-network

Routers, Switches and Hubs in

Perspective
Backbone

Router

Switch

Switch

Hub
S

WS

Hub
S

Sub-network 1

WS

Hub
WS
S

Hub

WS

WS
S

WS

Sub-network 2

Difference Between Routers,

Switches and Hubs
Hubs

Simply provides the mechanical and electrical connections

between the nodes

Switches

Examine the data packet for the destination address

Do not alter the data packets
Switches based on MAC address
Basically a Layer 2 device

Routers

Examine and alter the data packet format

Perform protocol conversion
Routes based on IP address
Basically a Layer 3 device

Router Requirements
Requires more processing power
compared to switches and bridges
Operations fall within the network
layer of the ISO-OSI communication
model

Router : Network Layer Interface

NETWORK
LAYER
DATA LINK
LAYER

ROUTER

NETWORK
LAYER
DATA LINK
LAYER

PHYSICAL
LAYER

PHYSICAL
LAYER

X MEDIUM

X MEDIUM

Layer 3
Layer 2

Layer 1

Switches

Devices and Layers

NETWORK
LAYER

Routers

DATA LINK
LAYER

Switches

PHYSICAL
LAYER

Hubs and
Repeaters

A Practical Router Example

Router

Router

Router

Router
Router

END OF MODULE

MODULE
Gateway

Web Exercise
Build a small network consisting of 4
workstations and 1 server for a small business
Provide details of the hardware in terms of the
types of hardware and the cost of the hardware

Connect the network to the Internet

Again provide the cost associated with the
hardware required to make the connection

In both of the above cases, also provide a

schematic diagram showing the network
connections

An Introduction to Gateways
Gateways are comprehensive
internetworking devices
They can be computers themselves

Gateways in the Past

Very popular
They were the only devices that could
be used for internetworking
Computers of the past were not
designed with network connections in
mind
Interconnection of different computer
systems has to be managed and driven by
an advanced device such as a gateway

The Present Scenario

Computers are now designed with due
consideration given to network connections
Larger networks could today be configured
using internetworking devices
Routers, switches, hubs etc.

Even, mainframes can be connected easily

using the above internetworking devices
In the past, because of the different nature of
the network (SNA), connecting a mainframe
to a LAN often required a gateway (SAN
Gateway)

Use of Gateways at Present

Used in the rare occasion when neither
of the internetworking devices could be
used for connecting the sub-networks
together
Example
Connection of a legacy mainframe system
to a bus LAN

Rule of Thump
Gateways are used for interconnecting
vastly differing computing
environments together

SNA Gateway

SNA
Gateway

NIC Card

WS

WS
LAN - Ethernet

FEP

Mainframe

Gateway
Interface
Card

Gateway
software

IBM - SNA

Gateways Functional Relationship

to the ISO-OSI Model
Application

Application

Presentation

Presentation

Session

Session

Transport

Transport

Network

Network

Data Link

Data Link

Physical

Physical

END OF MODULE

END OF MODULE
END OF CHAPTER