METROLOGY & INSTRUMENTAION

K.Srinivasulu Reddy
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Sreenidhi Institute of Science & Technology
1

When you can measure what you are speaking

about and express it in numbers, you know
something about it, but when you cannot
measure it, when you cannot express it in
numbers, your knowledge is of a meager and
unsatisfactory kind.

-Lord Kelvin
British Scientist
(1824-1907)

What is Metrology?
Metrology is the science of measurement of
dimensions, and measurement is the language of
science.
Measurement can be defined as the determination
of a dimension
If science is measurement,
metrology, there is no science.

then

without

History:
Measurements have been carried out by humans for as
long as civilization has existed. From the primitive population
who lived in caves to modern man, the need has always
been there to measure and know.
The standard of length evolved from the foot of the
"King", to the Egyptian Royal cubit, to the metallic
metre(1960) and then monochromatic highly stabilized light
source or speed of light in 1983.

1 royal cubit = 7 palms = 28 fingers

metre (meter in the US)

The Metrebar served as standard until 1960 when the metre was
redefined in terms of the wavelength of light emitted by
the krypton-86 isotope.
Historical International Prototype
Metrebar, made of an alloy of
platinum and iridium, that was the
standard from 1889 to 1960.

The metre was redefined yet again in 1983 in terms of the speed of
light.
Metre is defined as the length of the path travelled by light in
vacuum in 1/299,97,92458 seconds. This can be realized in practice
through the use of an iodine-stabilised helium-neon laser.
6

Study of metrology is important

Bearings: Shaft in the bush is of
improper dimensions which results
insufficient thin film, and hence friction,
wear, lubrication aspects etc.

Why metrology is important?

ACCIDENT OF ALASKA AIRLINES FLIGHT 261

The most serious process error resulted in the loss of Alaska

Airlines on January 31,2000 with 83 passengers.
8

Excessive thread wear on the jackscrew assembly resulted in loss

of the horizontal stabilizer.
The mechanic work card stated that thread wear was "within
allowable limits. In fact, the threads on the jackscrew nut were
almost completely worn away.
The process (fixtures) used by the mechanic were not what
Boeing specified and therefore the measurement results were
different and 83 people+crew lost their lives!

Recovered jackscrew - the spiral 'wire'

wound around the threaded portion is the
remains of the acme nut internal screw
thread that has been stripped from the
nut, which, freeing the jackscrew.

Random procedures produce random

results.

10

Types of Metrology
Subfield

Definition

Scientific or
fundamental metrology

concerns the establishment of quantity systems, unit

systems, units of measurement, the development of
new measurement methods.

Applied or
industrial metrology

concerns the application of measurement science to

manufacturing and other processes and their use in
society, ensuring the suitability of measurement
instruments, their calibration and quality control of
measurements.

Legal metrology

concerns regulatory requirements of measurements

and measuring instruments for the protection of
health, public safety, the environment, protection of
consumers and fair trade.
11

Process of measurement:
1.Measurand
2.Reference

3.Comparator

1.Measurand: Measurand is the physical quantity or property like

length, angle, diameter, thickness etc. to be measured.
2.Reference: It is the physical quantity or property to which
quantitative comparisons are made.
3.Comparator: It is the means of comparing measurand with some
reference

Ex: Fitter has to measure MS flat with steel rule

1.Aligns the zero end of steel rule with one end of MS flat.
2.Compares the length of flat with the graduations on the rule by his eyes.
Here,
length of MS plate is measurand, steel rule is reference and eye is
12
comparator

Basic definitions:

1.Nominal size(Basic size): It is the size of a part specified in the

drawing as a matter of convenience. limits of size are based on
nominal size.
2. True size: It is the theoretical size of a dimension, which is free
from any errors of measurement
3.Actual size: It is the value of size obtained through measurement
with the permissible measuring error
4.Exact size: It is the value of size obtained with the highest
metrological accuracy attainable in practice
5.Error of measurement: It is the difference between the true
value of the size being measured and the value found by
13
measurement(actual or exact)

6.Sensitivity: The smallest change in a measurement that an

instrument is capable of detecting.
Sensitivity refers to the ability of measuring device to detect small
differences in a quantity being measured.
Sensitivity may be defined as the rate of displacement of the
indicating device of an instrument, with respect to the measured
quantity.
Sensitivity= scale spacing/scale division value
Ex: In dial indicator, scale spacing is 1.0 mm and scale division value
is 0.01 mm
Sensitivity= 1/0.01=100= Amplification factor =gearing ratio
14

Which is more sensitive?

15

7.Calibration: The comparison of a device with unknown accuracy to a

device with a known, accurate standard to eliminate any variation in
the device being checked.
It is carried out by making adjustments such that the read out device
produces zero output for zero measured input.
Calibration is a premeasurement process, generally carried out by
manufacturers.
The accuracy of an instrument depends on the calibration. Constant
use of instruments affect their accuracy.
If the accuracy is to be maintained, the instruments must be
checked and recalibrated if necessary.
16

8.Hysteresis: The delay between the action and reaction of a

measuring instrument.
The phenomenon of hysteresis is due to the presence of dry
friction as well as the properties of elastic elements.
It results in the loading and unloading curves of the instrument
being separated by a difference called hysteresis error.
It also results in the pointer not returning completely to zero
when the load is removed. Hysteresis is particularly noted in
instruments having elastic elements.
The phenomenon of hysteresis in materials is due mainly to the
presence of internal stresses. It can be reduced considerably by
proper heat treatment.
17

18

9.Repeatability: It is the ability of the measuring instrument to

repeat the same results for the measurements for the same

quantity, when the measurements are carried out

-by the same observer
-with the same instrument
-under the same conditions
-without any change in location
-without change in the method of measurement
-and the measurements are carried out in short intervals of time.
It may be expressed quantitatively in terms of dispersion of the
results
19

10.Reproducability: is the ability of an entire experiment or study to

be reproduced, either by the researcher or by someone else

working independently.
It is one of the main principles of the scientific method

Reproducibility also refers to the degree of agreement between

measurements or observations conducted on replicate specimens
in different locations by different people, as part of the precision of
a test method

It may also be expressed quantitatively in terms of the dispersion

of the results.
20

11.Precision & Accuracy

Precision and accuracy are used in connection with the
performance of the instrument.
Precision is defined as the repeatability of the measuring
process, while the accuracy is the agreement of the result of a
measurement with the true value of the measured quantity.
In most measurements, it is the precision which is of great
importance.
If the instrument is not precise, it will give different results for
the same dimension when measured again and again.
21

12.Accuracy: Accuracy is the degree to which the measured value of the

quality characteristic agrees with the true value.
The difference between the true value and the measured value is
know as error of measurement.
It is practically difficult to measure exactly the true value and
therefore a set of observations is made whose mean value is taken as
the true value of the quality measured.

Dimension

Ex: Several measurements are made on a component by different types

of instruments and results are plotted

22

23

Excessive accuracy is a sign of poor breeding - Socrates.

24

25

Normal Distribution(Gaussian Distribution)

The most widely known and used of all distributions is the
normal distribution. It fits many human characteristics, such
as height, weight, performance etc.
Many living things in nature, such as trees, animals and
insects have many characteristics that are normally
distributed.
Many variables in business and industry are also normally
distributed.

very
commonly
occurring
continuous
probability
distribution-a function that tells the probability that any real
observation will fall between any two real limits or real
numbers, as the curve approaches zero on either side.
26

Frequency distribution and Normal distribution(Gaussian)

27

is Std. deviation

28

The formula for Normal distribution

29

Standard Deviation
The set of observations will scatter about the mean. The
scatter of these measurements is designated as sigma(), the
standard deviation,
Standard deviation is used as index of precision. The less the
scattering more precise is the instrument. Thus ,lower the value
of , the more precise the instrument.
Standard deviation (root mean square deviation) shows how
much variation or dispersion" exists from the average (mean, or
expected value).
A low standard deviation indicates that the data points tend to
be very close to the mean, whereas high standard deviation
indicates that the data points are spread out over a large range
of values.
30

Interchangeability & Selective assembly

Interchangeability: The ability to replace the components,
parts, or equipment of one manufacturer with those of another,
without losing function or suitability.

1.Complete interchangeability or random assembly(Universal or

full interchangeability): Any component will match with any other
mating part without classifying manufactured components into
sub groups or carrying out minor alterations
Any component assembles with any other componentcostly
Examples of Complete Interchangeability:
Electric lamps (socket diameters and screw thread), plugs, razor
blades, screws, nuts, and roller bearings can only be used
provided that interchangeability is complete.
31

2. Selective or partial interchangeability or selective assembly

Today the consumer not only wants quality, precision and
trouble free products but also he wants them at attractive prices.
This has become possible only by adopting automatic gauging
for selective assembly whereby parts manufactured to rather wide
tolerances fit and function as though they were precisely
manufactured in precision laboratory to very close tolerances.
In selective assembly the components produced by a machine
are classified into several groups according to size. This is done
both for hole and shaft and then the corresponding groups will
match properly.
Parts are graded according to size and only matched grades of
mating parts are assembled
32

If some parts (shaft and holes) to be assembled are manufactured

to normal tolerances of 0.01 mm (and both are within the curve of
normal distribution), an automatic gauge can segregate them into ten
different groups with a 0.001 mm limit for selective assembly of the
individual parts.
Thus parts with tolerances of 0.001 mm are obtained (due to
segregation) and both the conditions of high quality and low cost can
be served by selective assembly technique.

Requirement: Two component parts to be fitted together must be

kept within the normal distribution, the process capability of two
machines producing shafts and holes must be identical.
33

Process capability index

Desired mean value of hole

Process capability of
hole making machine

USL=Upper Specification Limit

LSL=Lower Specification Limit

Desired mean value of shaft

Process capability of shaft

making machine

In this parts are graded according to size and only matched grades of mating
parts are sssembled
34

Process capability is the ability of a process/machine to produce

output within specification limits
Fig. shows a case in which the process capability of both
shaft and hole producing machines is same but tolerances on parts
are desired as one-tenth of process capability of machines.
In such a case the parts are segregated by automatic inspection
into ten groups and parts in shaft region are matched with parts in
hole region.
This results in matching of parts having tolerances l/10th of
machine capability.
In this case as the process capability of both machines is same,
equal number of parts are available in each segregated zone and no
wastage will be there.
35

No. of groups= process capability/ tolerance desired

36

LIMITS, FITS &TOLERANCES

Terms & Definitions

What are Limits, Tolerance, Deviation and Allowance ?

37

TERMS & DEFINITIONS Contd..

38

Shaft: The term shaft refers not only to the diameter of a circular
shaft but to any external dimension on a component
Hole: Hole refers not only to the diameter of a circular hole but to
any internal dimension on a component
Basic or Nominal size: The size from which the limits of size are
derived by the application of upper and lower deviation.
Basic size is the zero line.
Basic size is same for both the hole and its shaft.
Basic size can be a whole number or a decimal number.
Ex: 32,15,8.75 mm etc
Any size more than the basic will be above the zero line and any
size less than basic size will be below the zero line and size equal
to basic size will be at zero line.
39

1.Tolerance: The difference between the upper and lower limits is

called the tolerance. (Or) The algebraic difference between upper and
lower deviations, and it is an absolute value.
Shaft of dia. 40.00 0.05 = 40.05 mm and 39.95 mm
The dimension 40.05 mm is called the upper limit and the dimension
39.95 mm is called the lower limit.
Tolerance = upper limit lower limit = 40.05 30.95 = 0.10 mm
Tolerance is always a positive quantitative number
For a shaft:
The maximum metal limit is the upper limit
The minimum metal limit is the lower limit

For a hole:
The maximum metal limit is the lower limit
The minimum metal limit is the upper limit

40

Maximum Material Condition (MMC) :The condition when the part

weights the most.
The MMC of a shaft is at the maximum size of the tolerance and the
MMC of the hole is at the minimum size of the hole.
Ex: MMC of the hole of Dia. 4+/- 0.02 mm is Dia. 3.98mm.
MMC of shaft of Dia.10 +0/-0.005 mm is Dia. 10.00 mm.
Least Material Condition (LMC) The condition when the part weights
the least.
The LMC of a shaft is at the minimum size of the tolerance and the
LMC of the hole is at the maximum size of the hole.
Ex: LMC of the hole Dia. 4+/-0.02 is Dia. 4.02 mm.
LMC of shaft Dia. 10+0/-0.005 is Dia. 9.995 mm.
41

TYPES OF TOLERANCE
There are 2 systems of writing tolerances

Unilateral: Dimension of a part is allowed to vary only on one side of basic

size, either above or below it.
Bilateral: Dimension of the part is allowed to vary on both the sides of the
basic size, the limits of tolerance lie on either side of the basic size, but
may not be necessarily equally disposed about it.
42

Unilateral Tolerance

Bilateral tolerance

43

2.Deviation: The algebraic difference between a size(actual) and

the corresponding basic size.
a.Upper deviation: This is the amount from the basic size or zero
line, to the maximum limit of size for either a hole or a shaft.
Designated by ES for hole , es for shaft
This is +ve when max. limit of size is greater than the basic size
This is ve when max. limit of size is less than the basic size
b. Lower deviation: This is the amount from the basic size or zero
line to the minimum limit of size.

Designated by EI for hole and ei for shaft.

This is +ve when the min. limit of size is greater than the basic size
This is ve when the min limit of size is less than the basic size

44

c. Fundamental deviation: This is one of the two deviations which is

conventionally chosen to define the position of the tolerance zone
in relation to the zero line.
This may be upper or lower deviation which is closest to the zero
line.
es: zero line (Basic Size) to superior size of shaft.
ei: zero line (Basic Size) to inferior size of shaft.
ES: zero line (Basic Size) to superior size of hole.
EI: zero line (Basic Size) to inferior size of hole.
French term ecart superieur & ecart inferieur

Basic shaft and Basic hole: The shafts and holes that have zero
fundamental deviation. Basic hole has zero lower deviation where as
basic shaft has zero upper deviation
45

TOLERANCES ON COMPONENTS

Tolerance is permissible variation in the dimension of the

component.

Due to inherent inaccuracies in Manufacturing processes

tolerances have to be provided.

Concepts of basic size, limits, deviations and tolerances - Shaft

46

TOLERANCES ON COMPONENTS

Concepts of basic size, limits, deviations and tolerances - Hole

47

TOLERANCES ON COMPONENTS

Basic Shaft:
Upper deviation (es) = Basic size Upper limit = 0

48

TOLERANCES ON COMPONENTS

Basic Hole:
Lower deviation (EI) = Basic size Lower limit = 0

49

(-ve)

50

(+ve)

51

Fit: It is the relation between dimensions of two mating parts

before their assembly.
Theoretically 3 types of fits possible. In actual practice, it is
necessary to define a large variety of fits within the same type to
account for all possible engineering situations.
Innumerable fits ranging from extreme clearance to those of
extreme interference can be obtained by a suitable combination of
fundamental tolerances and fundamental deviations.
Each of 25 holes has a choice of 18 tolerances.
Based on fundamental deviations, holes and shafts are indicated
by letter symbols (capital letters A to Zc for holes and small letters a to zc for
shafts.
Holes & Shafts:

These are : A,B,C,D,E,F,G,H,JS, J, K, M, N,P,R,S,T,U,V,X,Y,Z,ZA,ZB,ZC

52

Standard Limit System: 3 deciding factors

1.Functional requirement(What it is required to do)
2.Interchangeability(Ease of replacement in the event of failure)
3.Economics(Minimisation of production time and cost)
In order to have universal interchangeability it is essential to follow
a uniform standard throughout the world.
To assist the designer in the choice of limits & fits and to
encourage uniformity through out, some standard on limit and fit is
established.
a. British Standard BS-4500-1969
b. The International Standard ISO:286-1988
c. Indian Standard IS-919-1963
53

All these standards basically make use of the following to give

innumerable fits
1.Standard tolerance (Fundamental tolerance)
2.Fundamental deviation
Grade of Tolerance: It is an indication of the level of accuracy.
There are 18 grades of tolerances IT01, IT0, IT1 to IT16
IT01 to IT4 - For production of gauges, plug gauges, measuring
instruments
IT5 to IT7 For fits in precision engineering applications
IT8 to IT11 For General Engineering
IT12 to IT14 For Sheet metal working or press working
IT15 to IT16 For processes like casting, general cutting work
Tolerances have parabolic relationship with the size of the products.
As the size increases, tolerance within which a part can be
54
manufactured also increases

Standard Tolerance: Various grades of tolerances are defined using

the standard tolerance unit, (i) in m, which is a function of basic
size.
for D<500 mm
i= 0.004D + 2.1 for
D>500 mm
where, D (mm) is the geometric mean of the lower and upper
diameters of a particular diameter step within which the chosen the
diameter D lies.
Diameter steps in I.S.I are: (a-b, where a is above and b is up to)
1-3, 3-6, 6-10, 10-18, 18-30, 30-50, 50-80, 80-120, 120-180, 180-250,
250-315, 315-400 and 400-500 mm
55

Grades of tolerance Contd..

For IT01, Tolerance =0.3 + 0.08D

For IT0, Tolerance=0.5+0.12D
For IT1, Tolerance=0.8+0.02D
IT2 to IT4 are regularly scaled approximately, geometrically between
the values of IT1 and IT5
(IT1 is given above and IT5 given in table below)
Where D is in millimeters

Grades

IT5

IT6

IT7

IT8

IT9

IT10

IT11

IT12

IT13

IT14

IT15

IT16

Values

7i

10i

16i

25i

40i

64i

100i

160i

250i

400i

640i

1000i

56

INTERNATIONAL TOLERANCE GRADES

Values In
Microns

IT01

Values For
D In mm

IT0

IT1

0.3+0.008D 0.5+0.012D

0.8+0.020D

INTERNATIONAL TOLERANCE GRADES

Values In
IT5
Microns

IT6

IT7

IT8

IT9

IT10

IT11

IT12

IT13

IT14

IT15

IT16

Values
For D In
mm

10i

16i

25i

40i

64i

100i

160i

250i

400i

640i

1000i

7i

57

Upper Deviation (es)

Shaft
In microns
Designation
(for D in mm)
= -(265 + 1.3D)
for D 120
a
and = 3.52D
for D > 120
(140 + 0.85D)
for D 160
b
= 1.82D
for D > 160
= 52 D 0.2
for D 40
c
= -(95 + 0.8D)
for D > 40
d

= 16D

0.44

Table :Formulae for Fundamental Deviations

for Shafts for sizes upto 500 mm
Lower Deviation (ei)
Shaft
Designation
J5 to j8

In microns
(for D in mm)
No formula
= + 0.6 D1/3

k4 to k8
k for grade
3 and 4
m
n
p
r

= -llD0.41

f
g

= -5.5D0.41
= -2.5D0.34

=0

t
u
v
x
y
z
za
zb

=0
= + (IT7-IT6)
= + 5D0.34
= + IT7 + 0 to 5
= geometric mean of
values el for p and s
= IT8 + 1 to 4
for D 50
= + IT7 to + 0.4D
for D > 50
= + IT7 + 0.63D
= + IT7 + D
= + IT7 + 1.25D
= + IT7 + 1.6D
= + IT7 + 2D
= + IT7 + 2.5D
= IT8 + 3 + 3.15D 58
= + IT9 + 4D

59

TOLERANCES ON COMPONENTS

Symbolic representation for tolerances on shafts and holes

60

For shafts a to h the upper deviation is below zero line(-ve) and

for shafts k to zc it is above the zero line(+ve)
The deviation of the shaft from j to k either +ve or ve
For holes A to H, the lower deviation is above the zero line(+ve)
and for K to ZC, it is below the zero line(-ve)
The deviation of the hole from J to K either +ve or ve

Formulas are given to determine the fundamental deviation.

The other deviations(upper & lower) may be derived directly
using the tolerance IT.

Standard tolerances
18 grades: IT01 ,IT0
and IT1-1T16

Fundamental devations
25 types: A- ZC (For holes)
a- zc (For shafts)

61

Upper deviation of shafts from a to g are ve and for h it is

zero and lower deviation of the remaining shafts is +ve.
For holes, lower deviation is +ve for holes A to G and for H it is
zero and upper deviation of remaining holes is ve.
Allowances: The difference between the hole dimension and shaft
dimension for any type of fit is called allowance.
Allowance = Max. metal condition of hole Max. metal condition of shaft

= Low limit of hole High limit of shaft

62

63

Designation of Holes, Shafts and Fits

A hole or a shaft is completely described if the basic size,
followed by the appropriate letter and the number of tolerance
grade is given.
1. A 50 mm H-hole, with the tolerance grade of IT7, is 50 H7.
2. A 50 mm f-shaft with the tolerance grade IT8 is 50 f8
A fit is designated by the basic size common to both the hole and
the shaft followed by symbols corresponding to each element, the
hole is quoted first.
Thus, if the basic size is 50mm, the hole is H7 and the shaft is f8,
then the fit can be indicated as 50 H7f8
64

APPLICATIONS
IT Grade Range
Measuring Instruments and
IT01, IT0, IT1, IT2, IT3, IT4,
Production of Gauges
IT5, IT6
General Engineering/Industry and IT5, IT6, IT7, IT8, IT9, IT10,
Precision Fit
IT11, IT12
Semi Finished Product

IT11, IT14, IT15, IT16

Structural Engineering

IT16

65

TOLERANCES ON COMPONENTS

Tolerances obtainable from different manufacturing processes:

66

FITS

The relation resulting from the difference between the sizes

before assembly.
Classification of Fits

Clearance Fit

Max. size of shaft

smaller than

Min. size of hole

Transition Fit

Min. size of shaft

smaller than
Max. size of hole
or
Max. size of shaft

Interference fit

Min. size of shaft

larger than

Max. size of hole

larger than

Max. size of hole

67

Allowance is +ve for clearance fit and ve for interference fit. 68

Standard tolerances
18 grades: IT01 ,IT0
and IT1-1T16

Fundamental deviations
25 types: A- ZC (For holes)
a- zc (For shafts)

69

FITS
When two parts are to be assembled, the relation resulting from
the difference between their sizes before assembly is called a fit.

Depending on the actual limits of hole or shaft, the fit may be

clearance fit, transition fit or an interference fit.
Clearance fit: The largest permitted shaft dia is smaller than the
dia of the smallest hole, so that shaft can rotate or slide through
with different degrees of freedom according to the purpose of the
mating members

70

Interference fit: The min. permitted dia. of the shaft is larger

than the max. allowable dia. of the hole.
The shaft and the hole members are intended to be attached
permanently and used as a solid component but according to the
application of this combination, this type of fit can be varied.

Transition fit: The dia. of the largest allowable hole is greater

than that of the smallest shaft, but the smallest hole is smaller
than the largest shaft, so that a small +ve or ve clearance
between the shaft and hole members are employable.

71

FITS Contd..

Clearance Fit Maximum shaft dimension < Minimum hole dimension

72

Clearance Fit Contd

In a clearance fit, the tolerance zone of the hole is entirely above

the tolerance zone of the shaft.
Always clearance

73

Clearance Fit Contd

Min. clearance=Min. size of hole - Max. size of shaft

Max. clearance=Max.size of hole - Min.size of shaft
In this type of fit, the size limits for mating parts are so selected
that clearance between them always occur.
Clearance fits may be
slide fit, easy sliding fit, running fit, slack running fit and loose
running fit.
Ex: Pully rotates on shaft

74

Interference Fit (or) Press fit (or) friction fit

FITS Contd..

Maximum Hole size < Minimum Shaft size

Always interference for all sizes

75

Interference fit Contd..

Min. Interference=Max. size of hole Min size of shaft

Max. Interference=Min. size of hole Max. size of shat
76

Interference fit Contd..

In this type of fit, the size limits for the mating parts are so
selected that interference between them always occur.
In an interference fit, the tolerance zone of the hole is entirely
below the tolerance zone of the shaft.
The amount of interference determines the degree of force
required to assemble or mate the shaft to the hole.
The quality of surface finish of the mating parts, the size of the
diameters, the metals from which they are made, all affect the
quality of the fit obtained.
Ex: 1.Bearing bushes in their housing
2.Small end of the connecting rod & piston
The small end attaches to the piston pin, gudgeon pin or wrist pin, which is
most often press fit into the connecting rod but can swivel in the piston, a
77
"floating wrist pin" design.

Types of Interference fits: These are cheap and efficient method

of joining together two components.
1. Light press fit(H7p6): its use is confined to the assembly of
ferrous components which require removal for purposes of
renewal or replacement at a lateral date.
Ex: Drill bush in jig plate

http://engineeringhut.blogspot.in

78

2.Press fit(medium press or light drive fit-H7/s6): Involves heating

or refrigeration of one part, powerful forces are brought into play,
resulting in a permanent joint between the two components.
Ex: Bearing bushes in alloy housings or castings, pump impeller
shaft

3.Heavy drive fit: Ex: Cylinder liner in a cast iron block, producing a
permanent or semi-permanent assembly between liner and block.
large sizes require heating and shrinking to avoid the possibility of
damage ,if we attempt to assemble cold.
79

Wooden wheel of bullock cart with iron rim

80

Transition Fit

FITS Contd..

Obtained by overlapping of tolerance zones of shaft and hole

Does not guarantee neither clearance nor interference fit

81

Transition Fit Contd..

In this type of fit, the size limits for the mating parts are so selected
that either a clearance or interference may occur depending upon the
actual size of the mating parts. It may be noted that in a transition fit,
the tolerance zones of hole and shaft overlap.
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Transition fit Contd..

The transition fits may be force fit, tight fit and push fit.
Interference is so light that hand pressure is sufficient to cause entry of
the shaft.
Ex: Hand wheel and indexing dial keyed to shaft (Lathe machine with
lead screw)

Maximum clearance= Maximum limit size of hole Minimum limit size of shaft
Maximum interference = Minimum limit size of hole Maximum limit size of shaft
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Lower deviation of hole is zero

Low limit of hole=basic size

Upper deviation of shaft is zero

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High limit of shaft = basic size

To obtain different types of fits, it is general practice to vary

tolerance zone of one of the mating parts
HOLE BASED SYSTEMSize of hole is kept constant,
shaft size is varied
to get different fits.
Basic hole is chosen &
Different Fits are obtained
by changing shaft size
SHAFT BASED SYSTEMSize of shaft is kept constant,
hole size is varied
to get different fits.
Different Fits are obtained
by changing hole size
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Hole basis system

Shaft basis system

1.Size of hole whose lower deviation is Size of shaft whose upper deviation is
zero(H-hole) is assumed as the basic size. zero(h-shaft) is assumed as basic size
2.Limits on the hole are kept constant and Limits on the shaft are kept constant and
those of shaft are varied to obtain desired those on the hole are varied to have
type of fit.
necessary fit
3.Hole basis system is prepared in mass
production, because it is convenient and
less costly to make a hole of correct size
due to availability of standard drills and
reamers

This system is not suitable for mass

production because it is inconvenient,
time consuming and costly to make a
shaft of correct size

4.It is much more easy to vary the shaft It is rather difficult to vary the hole sizes
according to the fit required
according to the fit required
5.Gauging of shafts can be easily and Being internal measurement, gauging of
conveniently done with adjustable gap holes cannot be easily and conveniently
gauges.
done.
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FITS

Recommended Fits based on Manufacturing Processes and Application:

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FITS APPLICATIONS

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Equivalent fits on the Hole-basis and shaft basis system

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94

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Assume dia. Step of 18 & 24 &

FD of P hole is IT6 + 0 to 5

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The fit is interference.

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Difference between Tolerance & Allowance

Tolerance

Allowance

It is the permissible variation in the It is the prescribed difference between

dimension of a part(either a hole or the dimensions of two mating
shaft)
parts(hole and shaft)
It is the difference between higher and It is the intentional difference between
lower limits of a dimension of a part
the lower limit of hole and higher limit
of shaft
The tolerance is provided on the Allowance is to be provided on the
dimension of a part as it is not possible dimension of mating parts to obtain
to make a part to exact specified desired type of fit
dimension
It has absolute value without sign

Allowance may be positive(clearance

fit) or negative(interference fit)
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Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing (GD & T)

Geometric tolerancing reading helps to understand to specify and

control the form, location and orientation of the features of
components and manufactured parts.
Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing is an efficient method
for describing the tolerancing mandated by the designer of the part.

The Datum axis or Datum planes are to be used for locating other
features.
With GD&T all inspection will result in the same result. It will help
to understand if the dimension is within or out of tolerance.
Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing forces the designers to
totally consider functions, manufacturing processes, and inspection
methods.
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Tolerance Feature Indication/Feature Control Frame Symbol.

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Primary Datum, Secondary Datum, and Tertiary Datum Planes: Datums

must be perpendicular to each other.
Primary Datum Plane: The primary datum is selected to provide functional
relationships, standardizations and repeatability between surfaces. A
standardization of size is desired in the manufacturing of a part. Consideration
of how parts are orientated to each other is very important. The chosen primary
datum must insure precise measurements.
Secondary Datum Plane: Secondary datums are produced perpendicular to
the primary datum so measurements can be referenced from them.
Tertiary Datum Plane: Tertiary datum is always perpendicular to both the
primary and secondary datums ensuring a fixed position from three related
parts.

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