CHAPTER 1 : THE WORLD

THROUGH OUR SENCES

 1.1 SENSORY ORGAN

Humans have five sensory organs
SENSE

SENSORY ORGAN

STIMULUS

TOUCH

SKIN

TOUCH, PRESSURE,
COLD HEAT , PAIN

SMELL

NOSE

CHEMICAL
SUBSTANCE IN AIR

HEARING

EAR

SOUND

TASTE

TONGUE

CHEMICAL
SUBATANCE IN FOOD

SIGHT

EYE

LIGHT

 How these sensory organs detects the stimuli?

PRESENCE OF RECEPTOR
PATHWAY FROM STIMULI TO RESPONSE
STIMULI

SENSORY
ORGAN

RESPONSE

NERVE

BRAIN

EFFECTORS

NERVE

Nerve impulses are electrical messengers produced by

receptors
Effectors (organs) that carry out response
Responses are reactions received after stimuli.

 1.2 SENSE OF TOUCH

Our skin has 5 receptors that
are : cold receptor, pressure receptor, pain
receptors, heat receptors and touch receptors

The sensory receptors

depends on:
1) Closeness of receptors
2) Depth of receptors

 1.3 . SENSE OF SMELL

Roof of nasal cavity has many sensory cells to
detect smell
HOW?
1. Cilium contains mucus to dissolve
inhaled particles
2. receptors cell detects smell and
generate nerve impulses
3. Nerves sends nerve impulses to be
interpreted
4. Impulses are sent to the brain

 1.4 . SENSE OF TASTE

Surface of tongue has many taste buds to detect
chemical substance.
What are the taste detected by the tongue?
HOW?
1. Chemical particles dissolves in
the saliva on the surface of the
tongue
2. Taste projection receives
stimuli and send it to taste
receptors
3. Taste receptor sets of impulses
4. Impulses sent to the brain to
be interpreted as taste.

 1.5 SENSE OF HEARING

HUMAN EAR

Ear canal
Oval window
Outer ear: pinna and ear canal
Middle ear: ear drum, ossicles and eustachian tube
Inner ear: semicircular canals, oval window, cochlea and
auditory nerve

THE HEARING MECHANISM:

(a) The earlobe collects and directs sound waves into the
eardrum through the ear canal.
(b) The eardrum vibrates and the sound vibration in
tranferred to the ear bones (ossicle).
(c) The ossicles strenghen these vibrations snd convey
them to the oval window.
(d) The vibrations of the oval window cause the fluid in
the cochlea to produce nerve impulses.
(e) The nerve impulses are sent to the brain by the
auditory nerve to be interpreted.

The ear as a balancing organ:

(a) Apart from functioning as a hearing organ, the ear
also controls the balance of the body.
(b) Any bodily movements will stimulate the receptors in
the semicircular canals to produce impulses

(c) The brain will interpret these impulses and direct the
muscles to respond and to balance up the body.

 1.6 SENSE OF SIGHT

 FLOW CHART SUMMARIZING ROUTE OF LIGHT

RAYS

 1.7.LIGHT AND SIGHT

Reflection of light happens when it bounce off the
surface on which it falls.
Light rays are reflected by opaque surface
According to the Law of Reflection,
(1) the incident ray, reflected ray and the normal are all
on the same plane.
(2) the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of
reflection.
The Law of Reflection is obeyed only if the parallel light
rays fall onto a uniform surface.
If the parallel light rays fall on a non-uniform rough
surface, the reflected light rays will not be parallel or in
order but dispersed.

 The characteristics of the image formed are as follows :

(a) virtual ( cannot be formed on a screen ).
(b) vertical.
(c) of the same size as the object.
(d) the distance of the image behind the mirror is the same
as the distance of the object in front of the mirror.
(e) laterally inverted.

 Refraction is the bending of light due to speed change as it

travels through transparent medium.
Refraction of light takes place when light travels through two
different media with different densities at an angle.
The speed of light changes when it moves from one medium
to another with a different density which causes the light to
be refracted (bent).

 1.8. DEFECTS OF VISION

There are 3 types of eye defect:

1) short-sightedness
2)long-sightedness
3) astigmatism

Which of the following are concave and convex lens?

.

 ASTIGMATISM
1.Astigmatism is caused by the irregular curvature of the cornea.
2. All the light rays from an object do not meet at a point on the
retina. On the other hand, some light rays are focused on the retina
while others are focused either in front or behind the retina.
3. In many cases, astigmatism causes blurred vision for either near
or distant objects.
4. To correct astigmatism, the optician recommends cylindrical
lenses ( asymmetrical lens ).

QUESTIONS

What is a blind spot?

What is stereoscopic vision?
What is monocular vision?
What are optical instrument?

 1.9. SOUND AND HEARING

Production of Sound
Vibrations produce sound :
(a) Sound is a form of energy produced by vibration.
(b) When an object vibrates, the kinetic energy from the object is
converted into sound energy.
(c) Vibrating objects that produce sound are :
i. Musical instuments such as guitar, voilin and drum when
played.
ii. A tuning fork when knocked.
iii. Air at the mount of a tube containing water when blown.
iv. The tissues in our vocal cords vibrate when we talk.
v. Sound produced by animals when their limbs are moved :
- Vibrations of the wings of bees and mosquitoes produce
sound.
- Grasshoppers produce sound when their hind legh are
brushing against their wings, causing their wings to vibrate.

 Transfer of Sound
1. Sound can be transferred from one place to another through a medium.
2. Sound can move through a solid, a liquid or a gas. Sound is transferred through
the air when we listen to someone talking.
3. Sound moves fastest through solid, followed by liquid and slowest through a
vacuum as there are no particles in a vacuum.

Properties of sound:
o
o
o
o
o

Produced by vibration,
Need medium to travel
Cannot travel via vacuum
Absorbed by soft and rough surface
Reflected by hard and smooth surface

 What is stereophonic hearing?

A) hearing by both side of ears
B) hearing by one side of ear
Stereophonic hearing is important to humans and
animals because it can help to determine the
direction or source of a sound. This is important
because :
i. It can help avoid danger such as enemies,
predators or moving vehicles.
ii. It can help animals to obtain their food.

 Stimuli and response in plant

What do call the response in plant?

How many types of tropism are there and what are they?
Type of response that plant gives:

CHAPTER 2: NUTRITION

2.1 . CLASSES OF FOOD

How many classes of food are there?
What are they?

 Classes of Food
- Carbohydrates
- Proteins
- Fats
- Vitamins
- Minerals
- Fibre
- Water

NUTRIENT

SOURCES

FUNCTIONS

DEFICIENCY DISEASE

CARBOHYDRATE

SUGAR , STARCH,
GLUCOSE

SUPPLY ENERGY TO
THE BODY

BODY LACKS ENERGY

PROTIENS

MILK , FISH , EGG,

CHICKEN

-FOR GROWTH
-REPAIR OF BODY
TISSUE

-STUNNED GROWTH,
-KWACHIRKOR

FATS

OIL, GHEE,BUTTER

-KEEP BODY WARM

-TRANSPORT VITAMIN
A, D , E & K
-SUPPLY ENERGY

BODY LACKS ENERGY

FIBRES

FRUITS , VEGETABLES

HELPS PERISTALSIS &

REMOVAL OF
UNDIGESTED FOOD
FROM BODY

CONSTIPATION

WATER

FRUITS, VEGETABLES,
DRINKING WATER

-DISSOLVES CHEMICAL DEHYDATION

IN BODY
-CONTROLS BODY

NUTRIENTS
(VITAMIN)

SOURCES

FUNCTION

DIFICIENCY DISEASE

CARROT, FISH LIVER

OIL, GREEN
VEGETABLES

-FOR NIGHT VISION

-HEALTHY SKIN

-NIGHT BLINDNESS
-SKIN INFECTIONS

MILK, EGG, MEAT,

CEREALS

-HEALTHY NERVOUS
SYSTEM
-FORMATION OF RBC

-BERI BERI
-ANEMIA

CIRTUS FRUITS,
VEGETABLES

-RESISTANCE TO
DIABETES
- WOUND HEALING

SCURVY

MADE BY OUR BODY

BY SUNLIGHT, ALSO
PRESENT IN EGG

STRONG BONES AND

TEETH

RICKETS

NUTS, VEGETABLE OIL, -FOR HEALTHY

WHOLE GRAINS
REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
-FIGHT AGAINST
DISEASE

STERILITY

MADE IN HUMAN

PROLONGED

HELPS BLOOD

NUTRITION
(MINERALS)

SOURCES

FUNCTIONS

DEFICIENCY DISEASE

CALCIUM

MILK, CHEESE, GREEN

VEGETABLES

-STRONG BONES AND

TEETH
- HEALTHY MUSCLES
AND NERVES

-RICKETS
-OSTEOPRIOSIS
-MUSCLE CRAMPS

SODIUM

SALT, CHEESE

-CONTROLS BODY
FLUIDS
-PROPER
FUNCTIONING OF
NERVES

MUSCULAR CRAMPS

IRON

MEAT, GREEN
VEGETABLES, EGGS

FORMATION OF
HAEMOGLOBIN IN
RBC

ANEMIA

IODINE

SEAFOODS, IDONIED
SALT

FOE MAKING
HORMONES IN
THYROID GLANDS

GOITRE

PHOSPHORUS

MEAT, EGG, CHEESE

-STRONG TEETH &

BONES
-STORE ENERGY

-RICKETS
-FATIGUE

POTASSIUM

MEAT, NUTS

PROPER NERVE
FUNCTIONING

PARALYSIS

NURTIENTS

SOURCES

FUNCTION

DEFIECENCY DISEASE

FLUORINE

DRINKING WATER,
FISH, VEGETABLES

PROTECTS TEETH

DENTAL DECAY

Water is needed by the body for:

a. helping in the digestion of food
b. transporting digested food substances
c. transporting excretory products such as urea.
d. maintaining the concentration of blood.
e. maintaining the body temperature
f. all metabolic processes
A balanced diet is necessary for:
a. supplying the required energy
b. balanced body growth
c. maintaining the health of the body
d. preventing deficiency diseases such as scurvy and rickets

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE A PERSONS NEEDS

FOR A BALANCED DIET
Sex-men required more energy compared towomen of the same age and
body size. men are more active
Age-babies, children and teenagers require more energy compared to adults
or the elderly.
Body size- big-size individuals require more energy size compared to smallsized individuals
Physical activity-an individual who does heavy work uses more energy
compared to another who does light work
Weather- individuals living in places with cold weather require more energy
compared to individuals living in places with warm weather.

Energy in food measured in joules (J) or calories (cal).

1 calorie (cal) = 4.2 joules (J)
1 kilocalorie (kcal) = 4.2 kilojoules (kJ)

 FOOD TEST
NUTRIENTS

TEST

RESULTS

STARCH (TYPE OF
CARBOHYDRATES)

IODINE TEST

BLUE BLACK COLOUR

GLUCOSE (TYPE OF
CARBOHYDRATES)

BENEDICT TEST

BRICKED RED PRECIPITATE

PROTIENS

MILLIONS TEST

RED PRECIPITATE

FATS

EMULSIONS TEST

MILKY SOLUTIONS

The process of digestion in the alimentary canal:

a. physical digestion - involves the mechanical process of breaking
down large pieces of food into smaller particles using the teeth and
the churning movements of the alimentary canal.
b. chemical digestion - involves the action of various enzymes in
breaking down complex
food molecules. These complex molecules are insoluble but the
end products of chemicals digestion are simpler molecules which
are soluble.

HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

ABSORPTION OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Absorption is the process when the end products of digestion enters the
bloodstream through the small intestinal walls.

The inner surface of the small intestine (6 metres long) covered with
millions of small projections about 1mm long. These projections are called villi @
villus.

Food that has been digested into its most simple form is absorbed by the
villi @ villus on the small intestinal walls into the bloodstream.

The efficiency of absorption of digested food at the small intestine can

be increased by:
a. more villus to increase surface area
b. villus with very thin walls

Each villus has a network of a blood capillaries and a lacteal

Glucose, amino acids, minerals and water-solube vitamins are absorbed

into the blood capillaries.

Fatty acids, glycerol and fat-soluble vitamins (vitamin A, D, E and K) are

absorbed into the lacteal.

 REABSORPTION OF WATER AND DEFECATION

The main function of big intestine is to reabsorb water.
The substances that enter the big intestine consist of water and undigested
food substances like cellulose from the fibre of vegetables and fruits
(roughage)
Water is reabsorbed from these undigested food substances.
Undigested food materials together with water is passed to the colon(first part
of the large intestine)rectum is the last portion of the large intestine

Undigested food in the big intestine is expelled as faeces through the process
of defecation.
When the rectum is full of faeces, the rectum undergoes peristalsis and
assisted by abdominal contraction, will push the faeces through the anus to be
expelled.
If an individual has problems passing motion, he or she is said to be
constipated.
Constipation takes place because of the lack of water in the diet

 HEALTHY EATING HABITS

To eat healthy is important to live healthy life style

EXCESSIVE NUTRIENTS
SUGAR- Diabetes, obesity, tooth decay
SALT AND FATS- high blood pressure, heart attack
LACK NUTRIENTS
FIBRE-CONSTIPATION
PROTIEN- KWACHIORKOR

CHAPTER 3:BIODIVERSITY

 VARIETY OF LIVING THINGS AND

CLASSIFICATION

The living things found on Earth are humans, animals and plants.
A living thing is known as an organism.
Animals and plants have various shapes, sizes and habitats.
The differences that exist between the same species of living
things are called variations.

HABITAT

 CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS BASED ON

COMMON CHARACTERISTIC

 CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS BASED ON COMMON

CHARACTERISTIC

 SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS

Animals can be classified into two groups :
(a) Invertebrates ( animals without back-bones )
(b) Vertebrates ( animals with backbones )
Invertebrates
1. Invertebrates are animals which do not have backbones.
2. Invertebrates make up the most number of animals in the world.
3. Most invertebrates live in the water.
4. Some invertebrates have a hard external skeleton for protection like the crab
and the beetle.
5. Some invertebrates have soft bodies using their body fluids for support olike
the earthworms

 Generally, invertebrates can be classified into two groups, that is

(a) with jointed legs
(b) without jointed legs

 Vertebrates

Vertebrates are animals with backbones.

Warm-blooded vertebrates ( homoiothermic ) have fixed body
temperatures, cold-blooded vertebrates ( poikilothermic ) have
body temperatures that change according to the temperature of
their surroundings.

SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS

FLOWERING PLANTS
This type of plant produces flowers, seeds and fruits.
The flowers normally become fruits.
Flowering plants can be divided into dicotyledons and monocotyledons.
Examples of dicotyledons are rubber trees, durian trees, hibiscus plants and rambutan
trees. Examples of monocotyledons are paddy plant, maize plant, grass and oil palm

 NON-FLOWERING PLANTS

Non-flowering plants do not produce flowers, fruits and seeds.

These plants reproduce by spores or binary fission.
Non-flowering plants are divided into four groups, i.e. :
(a) algae
(c) fungus
(b) moss
(d) ferns