Building Technology 1- Building Materials

Arch. Maria Olivia Lengson

PARTS OF A TREE

Crown

Roots

consists of the leaves and branches at the top of a tree,

plays an important role in filtering dust and other
particles from the air. It also helps cool the air by
providing shade and reduces the impact of raindrops on
the soil below.

absorb water and nutrients from the soil, store sugar

and anchor the tree upright in the ground.

Trunk/Stem

supports the crown and gives the tree its shape and
strength. The trunk consists of four layers of tissue.
These layers contain a network of tubes that runs
between the roots and the leaves and acts as the
central plumbing system for the tree.

Heartwood

As a tree grows, older xylem cells in the center of the

tree become inactive and die, forming heartwood.
Usually darker than the sapwood
Main function is to support the tree.

Xylem/ Sapwood

comprises the youngest layers of wood. Its network of

thick-walled cells brings water and nutrients up from the
roots through tubes inside of the trunk to the leaves and
other parts of the tree.

Cambium

a very thin layer of growing tissue that produces new

cells that become either xylem, phloem or more
cambium.

Phloem/Inner bark

found between the cambium and the outer bark, acts as

a food supply line by carrying sap (sugar and nutrients
dissolved in water) from the leaves to the rest of the
tree.

Bark

The trunk, branches and twigs of the tree are covered

with bark. In certain species, the outer bark also
protects the tree from fire.

WOOD

Wood

fibrous substance which composes the trunk and

branches of a tree that lies between the pitch and the
bark.
defined as the lignified water conducting, strengthening
and storage tissues of branches, stem and roots of
trees.
wood is known as xylem.

LUMBER

Lumber

logs; sawn timber

cut timber, especially when sawn and dressed ready for
use in joinery, carpentry, etc.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A WOOD AND

A LUMBER

PROPERTIES OF WOOD AS A
BUILDING MATERIAL:
Strong material
Durable
Light in weight
Ease of working and fastening
With artistic and natural beauty

ADVANTAGES OF WOOD AS A
BUILDING MATERIAL
In proportion to weight, wood is stronger than other
materials.
Wood is easily worked out with tools and fabricated
into many shapes, sizes and design.
Wood is excellent no-conductor of heat. It is warm
in winter and cool in summer.
With artistic grains and appearance conducive to
architectural designs, adding beauty and attraction
to the furniture and interior finishes.
It is abundant in many shapes, color, sizes and as
renewable resources.

The use of timber connectors in wide trusses and

spans generally permit the use of small wood
members.
In terms of value, wood does not deteriorate if
properly handled and protected.
It is not really affected by changing styles.
It has prompt resale value.
Neither heat nor cold or climate changes would
seriously affect the physical properties of wood.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD

Strength ability of wood in resisting stress and

strain.
Strength of different wood varies in the following
manner:

Resistant to compression
Stiffness or ability to resist bending stress
Strength in tension or ability to resist lengthwise stress
Shearing strength or ability of the fibers to resist rupture
along or across the grain

Knots and other defects in wood affects the

strength more particularly the size, character and
location of the knots or defects.

Weight heavy woods are generally stronger than lighter

wood.
Hardness expressed as resistance to indention or to saw
or axe across the grain.
generally dependent on the weight of the wood,
structural elements and degree of seasoning
Cleavability resistance of wood to split along the grains.
Flexibility the moisture content of wood influences the
flexibility to a considerable degree.
Toughness- refers to the combined strength, shock
resistance and pliability or flexibility of the wood.
Durability ability to resist decay; length of its life under a
given condition; resistance of the wood to the influence of
mechanical wear

CLASSIFICATION OF WOOD

Mode of Growth:
Exogenous outward growing trees most preferred for
lumbering
Indigenous inside growing trees; less referred for
lumbering because the center core of the log is soft and
brittle in character.

Density mass & volume of the wood.

Softwood know as conifers or evergreen
Hardwood generally deciduous with broad leaves

Leaves

Needle shape
Broad shape

Shade and color of wood

Grain

White
Yellow
Orange
Red
Brown
Black, etc
Straight grain
Cross grain
Fine grain
Coarse grain

Straight grain

Nature of the Surface when sawed

Plain
Grained
Figured or marked

Fine grain

EXAMPLES OF SOFTWOOD AND

HARDWOOD

Softwoods

Pine
- a soft, white or pale yellow wood
which is light weight, straight
grained and lacks figure. It resists
shrinking and swelling. Knotty pine
is often used for decorative effect.

Ash
- a hard, heavy, ring porous
hardwood. It has a prominent
grain that resembles oak, and
a white to light brown color.
Ash can be differentiated from
hickory (pecan) which it also
resembles, by white dots in the
darker summerwood which can
be seen with the naked eye.
Ash burls have a twisted,
interwoven figure.

Birch
- a hard, heavy, close grained hardwood
with a light brown or reddish colored
heartwood and cream or light sapwood.

Cedar
- a knotty softwood which has a
red-brown color with light streaks.
Its aromatic and moth repellent qualities
have made it a popular wood for lining
drawers, chests and boxes.

Redwood
- The best quality redwood comes
from the heartwood which is
Resistant to deterioration due to
sunlight, moisture and insects.
It is used to craft outdoor furniture
and decorative carvings. Redwood
burls have a "cluster of eyes" figure.

Hemlock
- Light in weight, uniformly
textured. It machines well and has
low resistance to decay and
nonresinous.

Fir
- Works easy and finishes well.
Uniform in texture and nonresinous.
Has low resistance to decay. Used
in furniture, doors, frames, windows,
plywood, veneer, general millwork
and interior trim.

Spruce
- Strong and hard. Finishes well
and has low resistance to decay.
Has moderate shrinkage and light
in weight. Used for masts and spars
for ships, aircraft, crates, boxes,
general millwork and ladders.

Hardwoods

Oak
- a heavy, strong, light colored
hardwood. It is ring porous, due
to the fact that more and larger
conductive vessels are laid down
early in the summer, rather than
later. Prominent rings and large
pores give oak a course texture and
prominent grain. Oak also has
conspicuous medullary rays which
can be seen as "flakes" in quarter
sawed oak lumber.

Maple
- so hard and resistant to shocks
that it is often used for bowling
alley floors. Burls, leaf figure, and
birds-eye figures found in maple
are used extensively for veneers.
The Birds eye figure in maple is
said to be the result of stunted
growth and is quite rare.

Mahogany
- is strong, with a uniform pore
structure and poorly defined annual
rings. It has a reddish - brown color
and may display stripe, ribbon,
broken stripe, rope, ripple, mottle,
fiddleback or blister figures.
Mahogany is an excellent carving
wood and finishes well.

Cherry
- A moderately hard, strong,
closed grain, light to red-brown
wood, cherry resists warping and
checking. It is easy to carve and polish.

Walnut
- strong, hard and durable, without
being excessively heavy. It has excellent
woodworking qualities, and takes
finishes well. The wood is light to dark
chocolate brown in color with a straight
grain in the trunk. Wavy grain is present toward the roots,
and walnut stumps are often dug out and used
as a source of highly figured veneer.

Rosewood
- Very hard and has a dark reddish
brown color. It is fragrant and close
grained. It is hard to work and takes
high polish.

Teak
- a yellow to dark brown hardwood
which is extremely heavy, strong and
durable. Often strongly figured, teak
may show straight grain, mottled or
fiddleback figures. It carves well, but
because of its high value, is often used
as a veneer.

Hickory
- one of the heaviest and hardest
woods available. Pecan is a species of
hickory sometimes used in furniture.
It has a close grain without much figure.

Beech
- a hard, strong, heavy wood with tiny
pores and large conspicuous medullary
rays, similar in appearance to maple.
This relatively inexpensive wood has
reddish brown heartwood and light
sapwood.

WOOD JOINERY

Wood joinery is one of the most basic concepts in

woodworking. If one didn't have the ability to joint
two pieces of wood together in a solid fashion, all
woodworking pieces would be sculptures, carved
out of a single piece of wood.

Basic Butt Joint

A butt joint is nothing more than when
one piece of wood butts into another
(most often at a right angle, or square
to the other board) and is fastened using
mechanical fasteners. This type of joint
is often used in wall framing on construction sites.

Mitered Butt Joint

A mitered butt joint is basically the
same as a basic butt joint, except that
the two boards are joined at an angle
(instead of square to one another).
The advantage is that the mitered
butt joint will not show any end grain,
and as such is a bit more aesthetically
pleasing. However, the mitered butt
joint isn't all that strong.

Half-Lap Joint
The half-lap joint is where half of
each of the two boards being joined
is removed, so that the two boards
join together flush with one another.
This type of wood joinery can
obviously weaken the strength of the
two adjoining boards, but also is a
stronger joint than butt joints.

Tongue and Groove joint

When joining two boards square to
one another along a long edge, one
can simply butt the joint together
and hold it with fasteners. However,
the tongue and groove joint is much
stronger and provides more adjoining
surface areas, which is particularly
useful if you're going to glue the joint.

Mortise and Tenon Joint

The mortise and tenon is a classic
wood joinery method. These joints
have been used since the early times
of woodworking, and are still among
the strongest and most elegant
methods for joining wood.

Biscuit Joint
Another method for joining boards
along the edges (like the tongue
and groove joint) is to cut slots and
use beechwood wafers (known as
biscuits) to hold the boards in place.
This is a very useful modern wood
working joint, particularly for creating
table tops, relying on glue and the
swelling of the beechwood biscuit to
hold the boards in place.

Pocket Joint
The Pocket Joint is a type of wood
joinery that involves cutting a slot
and pre-drilling a pilot hole at an
angle between two boards before
connecting the two with a screw.
This pre-drilling needs to be very
accurate, so it is typically
accomplished by use of a commercial jig.

Dado
A dado is nothing more than a
square-grooved slot in one board
where another board will fit. Similar
to tongue and groove joinery, this is
a commonly-used wood joint for connecting
plywood, such as building cabinetry

Rabbet
A rabbet is essentially a dado cut
along the edge of a board. Rabbets
are often used at the back of cabinets
and other similar assemblies for
attaching the back to the sides of the
box, adding a considerable amount
of strength to the assembly.

Through Dovetail Joint

Of all wood joinery methods, the
through dovetail may be the most
revered. A classic through dovetail
is beautiful and very strong, and
adds a touch of class to any piece.
There are a few methods for creating
through dovetails, from hand cutting
to machining with a jig.

Half-Blind Dovetail Joint

There are situations where a dovetail
joint is the connection of choice, but
both edges of the dovetails should not
be visible. A perfect example is a
drawer front, where you don't want
to see the end of the through dovetail
on the face of the drawer. For this
type of joint, the best choice is a
half-blind dovetail.

Sliding Dovetail
A sliding dovetail is a versatile joint
with a lot of possible uses. A good
way to think of it is as a locking
dado. Learn the keys to building
a clean sliding dovetail joint, and
when to use one.

Box Joint
Dovetail joints are beautiful and
strong, but not always practical.
A box joint is a simpler alternative
to the dovetail joint. Learn how to
build consistent and strong box joints
in your woodworking projects.

PREPARATION OF WOOD

Logging harvesting of the tree crops consisting a

sequence of operations such as:

Cutting of the tree

Skidding when logs are moved to an assembly area loaded
to transport equipment then carried out of the forest to the
sawmill.
Bucking process of sawing into smaller pieces after the
removal of branches.

Skidded when the log is dragged and carried down to

an assembly area.
Yarded when logs are delivered through the cable or a
helium filled balloon.
Lumbering operation performed in preparing wood for
commercial purposes. It involves logging which is the
process of felling trees, hauling and delivery to the
sawmill.

SEASONING OF WOOD

Methods of Seasoning Wood

1. Natural or air seasoning one of the best
methods of seasoning lumber although the period
involved is relatively longer than the artificial
seasoning method.
a. Air drying
b. Sun drying
2. Artificial seasoning quick drying of wood
a. Kiln drying
b. Forced air or pressure drying
c. Vapor drying
d. Radio frequency dielectric drying

Methods of Treating lumber

1. Tantalizing
2. Permanizing
3. Wolmanizing
4. Bolidine salt

Methods of log sawing

1. Plain or bastard sawing
2. Quarter or rift sawing
a. Radial method
b. Tangential method
c. Quarter tangential method
d. Combined radial and tangential
method

DEFECTS OF WOOD
Abnormal

growth
1. Heart shakes are radial cracks
originating at the heart of the logs.
2. Wind shakes or Cup shakes cracks
or breaks across the annual rings of timber
during its growth caused by excessive
bending of the tree due to wind.
3. Star shakes composed of several
heart shakes radiating from the Center of
the log in a star-like manner.
4. Knots usually occur at the starting
point of a limb or branch of the wood.

Due to deterioration caused by:

1. Dry-rot - is the presence
of moisture in seasoned
wood caused by fungi.

2. Wet-rot - usually takes place

sometime in the growth
of trees caused by
water saturation.

DEFINITION OF TERMS:
Surfaced or dressed lumber
is a planed lumber having at
least one smooth side.
S2s & S4s planed or dressed
lumber of which the number connotes

the smooth sides.

S2s means smooth on two sides

& S4s on four sides.
Slab kind of rough lumber cut
tangent to the annual rings of wood
running the full length of the log
containing at least one flat surface.
Timber is a piece of lumber five
inches or larger in its smallest dimension.

Plank is a wide piece of lumber

from 2 to 5 inches thick.
Board is a piece of lumber less
than 1 thick and at least 4 inches
wide.
Flitch is a thick piece of lumber.
Fine grain when annual rings are
small, the grain marking which
separates the adjacent rings is said
to be fine grain. When large, it is
called Coarse-grained.
Straight grained - when the direction
of the wood fibers are nearly parallel
with the sides and edges of the board.

Lumber is the term applied to wood after it was

sawed or sliced into boards, planks, sticks, etc. for
commercial purposes.
a. Strips. Lumber less than 2 thick and less
than 8 wide.
b. Board Lumber. Pieces less than 2 thick and
at least 8 wide.
c. Dimension Lumber. Pieces more than 2
and less than 5 in any dimension.
d. Timbers. Pieces 5 or more on the smallest
dimension.
Rough Lumber is the term applied to newly
sawed lumber.
Silviculture is the process of growing timber
crops of a better and more valuable species as
rapidly as possible through scientific forestry.