The

ferrous-metal
piping
systems
comprising wrought carbon and alloy steels
including stainless steels are the most widely
used and the most completely covered by
national standards.

The Metallic Piping System consists of:

Seamless

Pipes and Tubing

Welded Pipes and Tubing
Methods of Joining Pipe
Flanged Joints
Ring Joint Flanges
Miscellaneous Mechanical Joints
Pipe Fittings and Bends
Valves

Pipe and tubing are divided into two main

classes, seamless and welded.
Seamless pipe, as a trade designation,
refers to pipe made by forging a solid round,
piercing it by simultaneously rotating and
forcing it over a piercer point and further
reducing it by rolling and drawing. However,
seamless pipe and tubing are also produced
by extrusion, casting into static or centrifugal
molds, and by forging and boring. Seamless
pipe has the same kilopascal (pounds force
per square inch) strength throughout the
wall. Pierced seamless pipe frequently has
the inside surface eccentric to the outside
surface, resulting in non-uniform wall
thickness.

Welded pipe is made from rolled strips

formed into cylinders and seam-welded by
various methods. The welds are credited with
60 to 100 percent of the strength of the pipe
wall depending on welding and inspection
procedures. Larger diameters and lower ratios
of wall thickness to diameter can be obtained
in welded pipe than can be obtained in
seamless pipe (other than cast pipe). Uniform
wall thickness is obtained. Hydrostatic testing
does not reveal very short lengths of partially
completed weld. This presents a possibility
that small leaks may develop prematurely
when corrosive fluids are being handled or the
pipe is exposed to external corrosion

Pipe must be joined to pipe and to other

components. Optimum design requires a minimum
of assembly labor and provides the same resistance
possessed by the pipe to (1) internal pressure as
regards both rupture and leakage, (2) bending
moments arising from spanning long distances
between supports or from thermal expansion in
piping containing offsets, (3) axial strain arising from
internal pressure acting on changes in direction,
blanks or closed valves, or thermal contraction in
straight runs, and (4) rupture or leakage in event of
fire. However, joints in pipe buried in the soil, where
the position of each length and component is fixed,
need provide the same resistance as the pipe to
internal pressure only; in event of earth settlement,
the joints may be required to yield to resulting
bending moments without leakage.

1.

Welded Joints.

2.

Branch Welds.

The most widely used joint

in piping systems is the butt-weld joint. In all
ductile pipe metals which can be welded, pipe,
elbows, tees, laterals, reducers, caps, valves,
flanges, and V-clamp joints are available in all
sizes and wall thicknesses with ends prepared for
butt welding.
These welds eliminate the
purchase of tees and require no more weld metal
than. If the branch approaches the size of the run,
careful end preparation of the branch pipe is
required and the run pipe is weakened by the
branch weld. Reinforcing pads and fittings are
commercially available. Use of the fittings
facilitates visual inspection of the branch weld.

Flanged Joints. For sizes larger than 2 in

when disassembly is contemplated, the
flanged joint is the most widely used. Though
flanged joints consume a large volume of
metal, precise machining is required only on
the facing. Flanged joints do not impose
severe diametral tolerances on the pipe.
Careful alignment prior to assembly of flatface and raised-face flanges is not required,
and the necessary wrenches are far smaller
than those for screwed assembly for the
same size of pipe. Manufacturers offer
flanged-end pipe in only a few metals.

Metal-Ring-Joint Facing. This is the most

costly facing. The ring just be softer than the
flange and is usually a softer grade of the same
metal as the flange. It is used where other
gasket materials are destroyed by the fluid
being handled. In event of fire, it does not leak.
Because the surfaces that the gasket contacts
are below the flange face, it is the least likely
facing to be damaged in handling. Compared
with raised or smooth faces, it is more difficult
to disassemble because the flanges can be
separated only in the axial direction.

Elbow fittings may be cast, forged, or hotor cold-formed from short pieces of pipe or
made by welding together pieces of miter-cut
pipe. The thinning of pipe during the forming
of elbows is compensated for by starting with
heavier walls. Flow in bends and elbow
fittings is more turbulent than in straight
pipe, thus increasing corrosion and erosion.
This can be countered by selecting a
component with greater radius of curvature,
thicker wall, or smoother interior contour, but
this is seldom economical in miter elbows.

Compared with elbow fittings, bends with a

centerline radius of three or five nominal pipe
diameters save the cost of joints and reduce
pressure drop. Such bends are not suited for
installation in a bank of pipes of unequal size
when the bends are in the same plane as the
bank. Flanged fittings are used when pipe is
likely to be dismantled for frequent cleaning or
extensive revision, for lined piping systems, or
for seasonal insertion of blanks as a substitute
for valves. They are also used in areas where
welding is not permitted. Cast fittings are
usually flanged.

Butt-welding elbows with short,

straight pipe extensions at the ends are
also available for insertion in slip-on
flanges. Schedule 5 and Schedule 10
stainless-steel butt-welding fittings are
also available with such extensions for
expanding into stainless-steel hubs
mechanically locked in carbon steel ANSI
B16.5 dimension flanges. The use of
expanded joints is restricted by the code.

Tees may be cast, forged, or hot- or coldformed from short pieces of pipe. Though it is
impossible to have the same flow simultaneously
through all three end connections, it is not
economical to produce or stock the great variety
of tees which accurate sizing of end connections
requires. It is customary to stock only tees with
the two end (run) connections of the same size
and the branch connection either of the same
size as the run connections or one, two, or three
sizes smaller. Adjacent reducers or reducing
elbow fittings are used for other size reductions.
Branch connections are often more economical
than tees, particularly when the ratio of branch
to run is small.

Reducers may be cast, forged, or hot- or coldformed from short pieces of pipe. End connections
may be concentric or eccentric, that is, tangent to
the same plane at one point on their
circumference. For pipe supported by hangers,
concentric reducers permit maintenance of the
same hanger length; for pipe laid on structural
steel, eccentric reducers permit maintaining the
same elevation of top of steel. Eccentric reducers
with the common tangent plane below permit
complete drainage of branched horizontal piping
systems through branches smaller than the main.
With the common tangent plane above, they
permit liquid flow in horizontal lines to sweep the
line free of gas or vapor.
Reducing elbow fittings permit change of
direction and concentric size reduction in the
same fitting.

Valve bodies may be cast, forged, machined from

bar stock, or fabricated from welded plate. Steel valves
are available with screwed or socket-weld ends in the
smaller sizes. Bronze and brass screwed-end valves are
widely used for low-pressure service in steel systems.
Valves serve not only to regulate the flow of fluids
but also to isolate piping or equipment for maintenance
without interrupting other connected units. Valve design
should keep pressure, temperature changes, and strain
from connected piping from distorting or misaligning
the sealing surfaces. The sealing surfaces should be of
such material and design that the valve will remain
tight over a reasonable service period.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Gate Valves
Plug Valves
Diaphragm Valves
Ball Valves
Globe Valves
Butterfly Valves
Check Valves

Cast Iron and Ductile Iron

Cast iron and ductile iron provide more
metal for less cost than steel in piping
systems and are widely used in low-pressure
services in which internal and external
corrosion may cause a considerable loss of
metal. They are widely used for underground
water distribution. Cement lining is available
at a nominal cost for handling water causing
tuberculation. Ductile iron has an elongation
of 10 percent or more compared with
essentially nil elongation for cast iron and
has for all practical purposes supplanted cast
iron as a cast piping material. It is usually
centrifugally cast in rapidly revolving molds.
This manufacturing method improves tensile
strength and reduces porosity.

High-Silicon Iron
Duriron is a high-silicon iron containing
approximately 14.5 percent silicon and 0.85
percent carbon. Durichlor is a special highsilicon iron containing appreciable amounts of
molybdenum. These alloys are available in the
cast form only. Pipe and fittings are cast with
the upset ends being joined by split flanges.
Integrally cast flanged pipe is also available.
Since these alloys have practically no
elasticity, it is necessary to use expansion
joints
in
relatively
short
pipe
lines.
Connections for flanged pipe, fittings, valves,
and pumps are made to 125-lb American
Standard drilling. The use of high-silicon iron
in flammable-fluid service or in Category M
fluid service is prohibited by the code.

Aluminum
Seamless aluminum pipe and tube are produced
by extrusion in essentially pure aluminum and
in several alloys; 6-, 9-, and 12-m (20-, 30-, and
40-ft) lengths are available. Alloying and mill
treatment improve physical properties, but
welding
reduces
them.
Essentially
pure
aluminum has an ultimate tensile strength of
65.5 MPa (9500 lbf/in2) subject to a slight
increase by mill treatment which is lost during
welding. Alloy 6061, which contains 0.25
percent copper, 0.6 percent silicon, 1 percent
magnesium, and 0.25 percent chromium, has an
ultimate tensile strength of 124 MPa (18,000
lbf/in2) in the annealed condition, 262 MPa
(38,000 lbf/in2), mill treated as 6061-T6, and
165 MPa (24,000 lbf/in2) at welded joints.

Copper and Copper Alloys

Seamless copper, bronze, brass, coppernickel-alloy, and copper-silicon-alloy pipe
and tubing are produced by extrusion.
Tubing is available in outside-diameter
sizes from 9 to 16 in and in a range of
wall thicknesses varying from 0.005 in
for the smallest tubing to 0.75 in for the
16-in size. Tubing is usually specified by
outside diameter and wall thickness.

70 percent copper, 30 percent nickel and

90 percent copper, 10 percent nickel,
ASTM B466, are available as seamless pipe
and welding fittings for handling brackish
water in Schedule 10 and regular copper pipe
thicknesses.
Copper-silicon alloy (96 percent cooper,
3 percent silicon, 1 percent manganese),
per ASTM B315, is furnished as seamless pipe
and welding fittings in Schedule 10 and
regular
and
extra-strong
copper
pipe
thicknesses. It is easier to weld than copper.

Lead and Lead-Lined Steel Pipe

Lead and lead-lined steel pipe have been
essentially eliminated as piping materials owing
to health hazards in fabrication and installation
and to environmental objections. Lead has been
replaced by suitable plastic, reinforced plastic,
plastic-lined steel, or high-alloy materials.
Magnesium
Extruded magnesium tubing is available per
ASTM B21758 alloyed with aluminum,
manganese, or zinc. Ultimate and yield
strengths at 204C (400F) are about one-half
those at room temperature. Outside-diameter
range is d through 8 in. Wall thickness ranges
from a minimum of 0.028 in to a maximum of
0.031 in for the d-in diameter and from a
minimum of 0.250 in to a maximum of 1.0 in for
the 8-in diameter.

Nickel and Nickel Alloys

A wide range of ferrous and nonferrous nickel
and nickel-bearing alloys are available. They are
usually selected because of their improved
resistance to chemical attack or their superior
resistance to the effects of high temperature. In
general terms their cost and corrosion resistance
are somewhat a function of their nickel content.
The 300 Series stainless steels are the most
generally used.
Titanium
Titanium is used at temperatures up to 315C
(600F). It is extremely notch-sensitive. Titanium
alloys such as 6 Al-4V, with higher tensile
strengths than straight titanium, are available.
Unfortunately, they lack the corrosion resistance
and weldability of the unalloyed material.

Zirconium (Tin 1.2 to 1.7 Percent)

Tubing is available seamless ranging from aoutside diameter by 0.030-in wall to 8-in
outside diameter by 0.4-in wall, and welded up
through 30-in outside diameter by f-in wall.
Cast valves and fittings are also available.
Flexible Metal Hose
Deeply corrugated thin brass, bronze, Monel,
aluminum, and steel tubes are covered with
flexible braidedwire jackets to form flexible
metal hose. Both tube and braid are brazed or
welded to pipe-thread, union, or flanged ends.
Failures are often the result of corrosion of the
braided-wire jacket or of a poor jacket-to-fitting
weld. Inside diameters range from 1/8 to 12 in.
Maximum recommended temperature for
bronze hose is approximately 230C (450F).

Asbestos Cement
Asbestos-cement pipe is seamless pipe made of
silica and portland cement, compacted under
heavy pressure, uniformly reinforced with
asbestos fiber, and thoroughly cured. The interior
surface is smooth, does not corrode, and does
not tuberculate. Under normal conditions of
operation, asbestos cement will handle solutions
within a pH range of 4.5 to 14. It is a brittle
material and undergoes expansion on wetting.
There are stringent OSHA regulations pertaining
to the fabrication and use of asbestos-containing
materials. The most widely used joints are pushon joints. This pipe is used extensively for
underground water systems, for paper-mill
slurries and wastes, and for mine water. The
push-on joints limit the temperature to 65C
(150F). The light weight of the pipe minimizes
handling labor, but careful handling is required to
avoid damage.

Pressure Pipe
This pipe is made in three classes corresponding to
working pressures of 0.7, 1.0, and 1.4 MPa (100, 150, and
200 lbf/ in2).
Gravity Sewer Pipe
This pipe is made in five classes for varying depths
of bury, trench dimension, soil, and vehicular loading
(Table 10-37).
Impervious Graphite
Impervious-graphite pipe, fittings, and valve bodies
are made of electric-furnace graphite which, after
extruding or molding, is rendered impervious by
impregnation with synthetic resins. When impregnated
with phenolic resin, it is resistant to most acids (including
hydrofluoric), salts, and organic compounds. When
impregnated with modified phenolic resin, it is resistant
to strong alkalies and highly oxidizing materials.

Cement-Lined Steel
Cement-lined steel pipe is made by lining
steel pipe with special cement. Its use
prevents pickup of iron by the fluid
handled, corrosion of the metal by
brackish water, and growth of
tuberculation. Threaded pipe in sizes from
3/4 to 4 in is stocked; however, cementlined pipe in sizes smaller than 1 1/2 in is
not considered practical for common use.
The coefficients of expansion of iron and
cement are nearly alike.

Chemical Ware
Acidproof chemical-stoneware pipe and
fittings withstand most acid, alkali, or
other corrosives, the main exception
being hydrofluoric acid. Plain butt-end
pipe is furnished with cemented-on
flanges with ANSI B16.1 drilling or (for use
in ventilating work in which the space is
too limited for bell-and-spigot pipe) with a
ring for joining with a steel band. Mediumpressure
chemical-stoneware
pipe
armored with glass fiber reinforced with
furan resin can be obtained.

Vitrified-Clay Sewer Pipe

This pipe is resistant to very dilute
chemicals except hydrofluoric acid
and is produced as standard strength
and extra-strength (ASTM C700). It is
used for sewage, industrial waste, and
storm water at atmospheric pressure.

Concrete
Unreinforced-concrete sewer pipe is
made with poured joint ends in sizes from
4 to 24 in conforming to ASTM C14.
Reinforced-concrete culvert, storm-drain,
and sewer pipe is made with poured joint
or push-on joint ends conforming to ASTM
C76 in five classes of reinforcement area
and wall thickness in sizes from 12
through 108 in. Essentially the same
pipe, except that it has push-on joint
ends only, is available for water pressures
up to 0.31 MPa (45 lbf/in2) in sizes 12
through 96 in and lengths up through 5.6
m (16 ft) conforming to AWWA C302.

Glass Pipe and Tubing

These are made from heat- and chemicalresistant borosilicate glass (e.g., Corning
Glass Works No. 7740) ASTM C599. This
glass is highly stable in acids and resists
attack by alkalies in solutions in which pH
is 8 or less. It is attacked by hydrofluoric
acid and glacial phosphoric acid. Some
important physical properties are:
Modulus of elasticity 9,750,000 lb/in2
(67,224 MPa)
Specific gravity 2.23
Specific heat 0.20
Thermal conductivity at 75F 8.1 Btu/
(hft2)(F/in)[1.168 W/(mK)]

Chemical-Porcelain Pipe
Made of dense, nonporous material and fired at
1230C (2250F), chemical-porcelain pipe, fittings, and
valves are inert to all acids except hydrofluoric but are
not usually recommended for alkalies. Surfaces, except
when ground for gasketing, are usually glazed for easy
cleaning. Working pressures of 0.3 to 0.7 MPa (50 to 100
lbf/in2) are recommended for valves and piping.
Temperatures of 200C (400F) or more can be used, but
sudden thermal shocks must be avoided.
Cast-iron flanges
Cast-iron flanges(ANSI B16.1, 125-lb bolt spacing)
are permanently attached to the porcelain with high
strength acid-resistant cement. Flanged chemicalporcelain 90 and 45 elbows, tees, crosses, reducers,
caps, and globe valves of the Y pattern are available.
Armored chemical porcelain is furnished with 1.5- to 2.4mm- (1/16- to 332-in-) thick woven glass cloth
impregnated with and bonded to the porcelain by plastic
cement. It prevents abuse from cracking the porcelain
and, if the porcelain is cracked, prevents rupture.

Fused Silica or Fused Quartz

Containing 99.8 percent silicon dioxide, fused
silica or fused quartz can be obtained as
opaque or transparent pipe and tubing. The
melting point is 1710C (3100F). Tensile
strength is approximately 48 MPa (7000
lbf/in2); specific gravity is about 2.2. The pipe
and tubing can be used continuously at
temperatures up to 1000C (1830F) and
intermittently up to 1500C(2730F). The
materials chief assets are non-contamination
of most chemicals in high-temperature
service, thermal-shock resistance, and hightemperature
electrical
insulating
characteristics.

Wood and Wood-Lined Steel Pipe

Douglas fir, white pine, redwood, and
cypress are the most common woods
used for wood pipe. Wood-lined steel pipe
is suitable for temperatures up to
82C(180F) and for pressures from 1.4
MPa (200 lbf/in2) for the 4-in size, through
0.86 MPa (125 lbf/in2) for the 10-in size,
to 0.7 MPA (100 lbf/in2) for sizes larger
than 10 in. For fume stacks and similar
uses, woodstave pipe with rods on 0.3-m
(1-ft) centers is most satisfactory
because it permits periodic tightening.

Plastic-Lined and Rubber-Lined Steel Pipe

Use of a variety of polymeric materials as liners
for steel pipe rather than as piping systems
solves problems which the relatively low tensile
strength of the polymer at elevated
temperature and high thermal expansion,
compared with steel, would produce. The steel
outer shell permits much wider spacing of
supports, reliable flanged joints, and higher
pressure and temperature in the piping. The
size range is 1 through 12 in. The systems are
flanged with 125-lb cast-iron, 150-lb ductileiron, and 150- and 300-lb steel flanges. The
linings are factory-installed in both pipe and
fittings. Lengths are available up to 6 m (20 ft).

Saran Liners Saran (Dow Chemical Co.)

polyvinylidene
chloride
liners
have
excellent resistance to hydrochloric acid.
Maximum temperature is 80C (175F).
Polypropylene Liners Polypropylene
liners (Hercules Incorporated) are used in
sulfuric acid service. At 10 to 30 percent
concentration the upper temperature
limit is 93C (200F). In the range of 50 to
93 percent concentration, this drops from
66 to 24C (from 150 to 75F).
Kynar Liners Kynar (Pennwalt Chemicals
Corp.) vinylidene fluoride liners are used
for many chemicals, including bromine
and 50 percent hydrochloric acid.

TFE-, PFA-, and FEP-Lined Steel Pipe These

are available in sizes from 1 through 12 in and in
lengths through 6 m (20 ft). The liners are not
affected by any concentration of acids, alkalies,
or solvents, but vent holes or internal grooving is
required in the steel pipe to release gases which
permeate through the liners. Manufacturers
should be consulted before use in vacuum
service. Experience has determined that practical
upper temperature limits are 204C (400F) for
TFE
(polytetrafluoroethylene)
and
PFA
(perfluoroalkoxy) and 149C (300F) for FEP
(fluoroethylene polymer); 150-lb and 300-lb
ductile-iron or steel flanged lined fittings and
valves are used. The nonadhesive properties of
the liner make it ideal for handling sticky or
viscous substances. Thickness of the lining varies
from 1.5 to 3.8 mm (60 to 150 mil), depending on
pipe size. Only flanged joints are used.

Rubber-Lined Pipe
This pipe is made in lengths up to 6 m(20 ft)
with seamless, straight seam-welded and
some types of spiral-welded pipe using
various types of natural and synthetic
adhering rubber. The type of rubber is
selected to provide the most suitable lining for
the specific service. In general, soft rubber is
used for abrasion resistance, semihard for
general service, and hard for the more severe
service conditions. Multiple-ply lining and
combinations of hard and soft rubber are
available. The thickness of lining ranges from
3.2 to 6.4 mm (1/8 to 1/4 in) depending on the
service, the type of rubber, and the method of
lining. Cast-steel, ductile-iron, and cast-iron
flanged fittings are available rubber-lined.

Plastic Pipe
In contrast to other piping materials,
plastic pipe is free from internal and
external corrosion, is easily cut and joined,
and does not cause galvanic corrosion
when coupled to other materials.
Allowable stresses and upper temperature
limits are low. Normal operation is in the
creep range. Fluids for which a plastic is
not suited penetrate and soften it rather
than dissolve surface layers. Coefficients of
thermal expansion are high.

Polyethylene
Polyethylene (PE) pipe and tubing are
available in sizes 42 in and smaller. They have
excellent resistance at room temperature to
salts, sodium and ammonium hydroxides, and
sulfuric, nitric, and hydrochloric acids. Pipe and
tubing are produced by extrusion from resins
whose density varies with the manufacturing
process. Physical properties and therefore wall
thickness depend on the particular resin used.
About 3 percent carbon black is added to provide
resistance to ultraviolet light. Use of higherdensity resin reduces splitting and pinholing in
service and increases the strength of the
material and the maximum service temperature.
ASTM D2104 covers PE pipe in sizes through 6
in, with IPS Schedule 40 outside and inside
diameters for insert-fitting joints.

Polyvinyl chloride
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and chlorinated
polyvinyl chloride (CPVC) pipe and tubing are
available in sizes 12 in and smaller for PVC
and 4 in and smaller for CPVC. They have
excellent resistance at room temperature to
salts, ammonium hydroxide, and sulfuric,
nitric, acetic, and hydrochloric acid but may
be damaged by ketones, aromatics, and
some chlorinated hydrocarbons.
Five PVC pipe materials having
characteristic chemical resistance, impact
strength, and hydrostatic design stresses are
included in the group of ASTM pipe
specifications pertaining to PVC.

Polypropylene
Polypropylene (PP) pipe and fittings have excellent
resistance to most common organic and mineral
acids and their salts, strong and weak alkalies, and
many organic chemicals. They are available in sizes
a through 6 in, in Schedules 40 and 80, but are not
covered as such by ASTM specifications.
Reinforced-Thermosetting-Resin (RTR) Pipe
Glass-reinforced epoxy resin has good resistance to
nonoxidizing acids, alkalies, salt water, and corrosive
gases. The glass reinforcement is many times
stronger at room temperature than plastics, does not
lose strength with increasing temperature, and
reinforces the resin effectively up to 149C (300F).
The glass reinforcement is located near the outside
wall, protected from the contents by a thick wall of
resin and protected from the atmosphere by a thin
wall of resin. Stock sizes are 2 through 12 in. Pipe is
supplied in 6- and 12-m (20- and 40-ft) lengths.

Haveg 41NA
This is a proprietary thermoset plastic
consisting of a phenol-formaldehyde resin and
nonasbestos silicate fillers. It is furnished as pipe
and fittings with several types of joints and is
resistant to most acidic chemicals, especially
hydrochloric acid. The standard joint uses split
cast-iron flanges set in tapered grooves
machined in the outside of the pipe. A facing and
grooving tool is available. Standard lengths are
1.2 m (4 ft) in the - and -in sizes and 3 m
(10 ft) in all other sizes.
Haveg 61NA
A proprietary nonasbestos silicate-filled
furfuryl alcohol-formaldehyde resin pipe, Haveg
61NA is highly resistant to most acids and, with
some reservations, to sodium hydroxide. It is also
resistant to many hydrocarbons, halogenated
organic compounds, and organic acids.