Instructional

Design

Last Week: Constructivism

Instructional Design
Definition

Instructional Design

Maximise the effectiveness, efficiency and appeal of

instruction and other learning experiences.
The process consists of determining the current
state and needs of the learner, defining the end goal
of instruction, and creating some "intervention" to
assist in the transition.
The outcome of this instruction may be directly
observable and scientifically measured or
completely hidden and assumed.

Instructional Design
We

can divide models of instructional design

broadly into two categories

MARCO: Models which concern themselves with

the design and planning of an entire module or
programme
MICRO: Models which concern themselves with
the design and planning of an individual lecture or
teaching session

Instructional Design
The Classic Macro Model:
Blooms Taxonomy

Benjamin S. Bloom

Born Feb 21, 1913

Died Sept 13, 1999
Born in Lansford,
Pennsylvania.
Educational
psychologist
Editor of Taxonomy of
Educational Objectives,
Handbook 1: Cognitive
Domain

Blooms Taxonomy

In the 1950s Bloom helped

developed a taxonomy of cognitive
objectives in Taxonomy of
Educational Objectives, Handbook
1: Cognitive Domain
Means of expressing qualitatively
different kinds of thinking
Been adapted for classroom use as
a planning tool and continues to be
one of the most universally applied
models
Provides a way to organise thinking
skills into six levels, from the most
basic to the more complex levels of
thinking

Blooms Taxonomy

Blooms Taxonomy
(Meaning)
Evaluation: compare and discriminate between ideas, assess value
of theories, presentations make choices based on reasoned argument,
verify value of evidence, recognize subjectivity
Synthesis: use old ideas to create new ones, generalize from given
facts, relate knowledge from several areas, predict, draw conclusions
Analysis: seeing patterns, organization of parts, recognition of
hidden meanings, identification of components
Application: use information use methods, concepts, theories in new
situations, solve problems using required skills or knowledge
Comprehension: understanding information,grasp meaning,
translate knowledge into new context
Knowledge: observation and recall of information,knowledge of
dates, events, places knowledge of major ideas

Blooms Taxonomy
(Verbs)
Evaluation: appraise, argue, assess, attach, choose compare, defend
estimate, judge, predict, rate, core, select, support, value
Synthesis: arrange, assemble, collect, compose, construct, create,
design, develop, formulate, manage, organize, plan, prepare
Analysis: analyze, appraise, calculate, categorize, compare, contrast,
criticize, differentiate, discriminate, distinguish, examine
Application: apply, choose, demonstrate, dramatize, employ,
illustrate, interpret, operate, practice, schedule, sketch, solve, use
Comprehension: classify, describe, discuss, explain, express,
identify, indicate, locate, recognize, report, restate, review
Knowledge: arrange, define, duplicate, label, list, memorize, name,
order, recognize, relate, recall, repeat, reproduce state

Learning Outcomes

Examples
Example

Exam Paper 1

Example

Exam Paper 2

Blooms Taxonomy Revised

In the 1990s Lorin

Anderson, a former student
of Bloom, led a new
assembly which met for the
purpose of updating the
taxonomy, hoping to add
relevance for 21st century
students and teachers
Published in 2001, the
revision includes several
minor and major changes.
The revised version of the
taxonomy is intended for a
much broader audience.

Original Terms

New Terms

Evaluation

Creating

Synthesis

Evaluating

Analysis
Application
Comprehension
Knowledge

Analysing
Applying
Understanding
Remembering

Blooms Taxonomy Revised

Creating: Generating new ideas, products, or ways of viewing

things. Designing, constructing, planning, producing, inventing.

Evaluating: Justifying a decision or course of action. Checking,

hypothesising, critiquing, experimenting, judging

Analysing: Breaking information into parts to explore

understandings and relationships. Comparing, organising,
deconstructing, interrogating, finding

Applying: Using information in another familiar situation.

Implementing, carrying out, using, executing

Understanding: Explaining ideas or concepts. Interpreting,

summarising, paraphrasing, classifying, explaining

Remembering: Recalling information. Recognising, listing,

describing, retrieving, naming, finding

Blooms Taxonomy Revised

Creating

Green Hat, Construction Key, SCAMPER, Ridiculous

Key, Combination Key, Invention Key

Evaluating

Brick Wall Key, Decision Making Matrix, PMI,

Prioritising.

Analysing

Yellow Hat, Black Hat, Venn Diagram, Commonality

Key, Picture Key, Y Chart, Combination Key.

Applying

Blue Hat, Brainstorming, Different uses Key, Reverse

Listing Key, Flow Chart.

Understanding

Graphic Organisers, Variations Key, Reverse Listing,

PMI, Webs (Inspiration).

Remembering

White Hat, Alphabet Key, Graphic Organisers,

Acrostic, Listing, Brainstorming, Question Key.

Instructional Design
Other Macro Models

ADDIE Model

The ADDIE model is used by instructional designers

and training developers. It is composed of five
phases

Analysis,
Design,
Development,
Implementation, and
Evaluation

Which represent a dynamic, flexible guideline for

building effective training and performance support
tools. This model attempts to save time and money
by catching problems while they are still easy to fix.

ADDIE Model

ADDIE Model :
A = Analysis
In

analysis stage of ID process, want to find

out:

Who are the learners or audience

Audience analysis

What is the goal or intended outcome

Goal analysis

ADDIE Model :
D = Design
Content

Subject matter analysis

Steps

of instruction

Lesson planning-writing objectives

Type

of the course

of media or presentation mode

Media selection

ADDIE Model :
D = Development
Development

of instruction

Generate lesson plans (different from lesson

planning) and lesson materials.
Complete all media & materials for instruction,
and supporting documents.
End result is a course or workshop ready for
delivery.

ADDIE Model :
I = Implementation
The

delivery of the instruction.

Purpose is effective & efficient delivery of

instruction.
Promote students understanding of material &
objectives, and ensure transfer of knowledge.

ADDIE Model :
E = Evaluation
Two

related evaluations going on

simultaneously in most ID situations.

Formative Evaluation
Summative Evaluation

ADDIE Model

The elusive origins of the

ADDIE Model
Remarkably

it appears that the ADDIE model

wasnt specifically developed by any single
author but rather to have evolved
informally through oral tradition.
The ADDIE Model is merely a colloquial term
used to describe a systematic approach to
instructional development.

ASSURE model

Analyze learners characteristics, competencies, and learning

styles
State objectives for what your lesson should accomplish (ABCD
formataudience/behavior/condition/degree)
Select, modify, and design methods, media, and materials
Utilize methods, media and materialsimplement the lesson
Require learner participation in lesson
Evaluate learner outcomes with objectives and revise as
necessary
From Instructional Media and Technologies for Learning by
Robert Heinich, Michael Molenda, James D. Russell, Sharon E.
Smaldino

The ABCD Format

Audience: The audience is the group of individuals who are targeted for instruction. While
at first this seems straight forward, many times employees will ask will I get anything out of
this training? or should I attend this training? or who is supposed to go to this training?
Without a clear-cut audience in mind, it is difficult to pinpoint exactly who gains from the
training and who would be better served in a different class.
Behaviour: The behaviour element of the objective indicates the desired outcome of the
particular learning event. The behaviour will be stated in the following form will be able to
detail properly or will be able to discuss the mechanism of action (MOA) with the doctor.
The behaviour is what you want the person to be able to do as a result of the training. It is
important to clarify the behaviour because training programs can get off track when the
desired outcome of the training activity is not clearly defined.
Condition: The term condition describes circumstances under which the behaviour should
occur. An example would be when calling on a doctor, The condition describes a trigger for
the desired behaviour.
Degree: The term degree represents how well the employee must perform to be
considered acceptable. The degree of the objective is the measurable component.
Measures can be expressed as level of productivity, quantity, quality, time, internal or
external customer requirements, or other criteria gained from actual or anticipated work
practices.
From Instructional Technology - A Systematic Approach to Education by Frederick G.
Knirk, Kent L. Gustafson

Dick and Carey Model

The

model was originally published in 1978

by Walter Dick and Lou Carey in their book
entitled The Systematic Design of
Instruction.
It champions a systems view of instruction as
opposed to viewing instruction as a sum of
isolated parts. The model addresses
instruction as an entire system, focusing on
the interrelationship between context,
content, learning and instruction.

Dick and Carey Model

Revise
Instruction

Conduct
Instructional
Analysis
Assess Need
to Identify
Goal(s)

Write
Performance
Objectives

Analyze
Learners and
Contexts

Develop
Assessment
Instruments

Develop
Instructional
Strategy

Develop
And Select
Instructional
Materials

Design and
Conduct
Formative
Evaluation

Design and
Conduct
Summative
Evaluation

ICARE model
Based

on the Dick and Carey Model and

pioneered by San Diego State University in
1997, the model has found a place in the
higher education sector.

ICARE model
Introduce

learners to what is to be learned

Content of lesson is presented to learner
involving active participation
Apply new knowledge and skills with practical
activities
Reflect on what has been learned
Extend learning of lesson by providing
alternative resources

ICARE model

Tripp and Bichelmeyer

Design

that occurs in a rapid prototyping

environment, when prototyping is specifically
used as a method for instructional design.
The analysis of needs and content depends
in part upon the knowledge that is gained by
actually building and using a prototype
instructional system.

Tripp and Bichelmeyer

Tripp,Steven, Bichelmeyer,Barbara, Rapid prototyping: An alternative instructional

design strategy, Educational Technology Research and Development, 38, 1,
3/18/1990, Pages 31-44

Tripp and Bichelmeyer

Diagram

needs additions

Other Macro Models

There

are many other macro models of

instructional design, we wont go into them,
but Ive included a few pictures for your
viewing pleasure.

Hannafin & Peck Model

Knirk & Gustafson Model

Jerrold Kemp Model

Gerlach-Ely Model

Ausubels Assimilation Theory

Instructional Design
Micro Models

Gagns Nine Events of

Instruction

Gagns Nine Events of

Instruction
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

7.
8.
9.

Gain attention - Curiosity motivates students to learn.

Inform learners of objectives - These objectives should form the basis for
assessment.
Stimulate recall of prior learning - Associating new information with prior
knowledge can facilitate the learning process.
Present the content - This event of instruction is where the new content is
actually presented to the learner.
Provide learning guidance - use of examples, non-examples, case studies,
graphical representations, mnemonics, and analogies.
Elicit performance (practice) - Eliciting performance provides an opportunity
for learners to confirm their correct understanding, and the repetition further
increases the likelihood of retention.
Provide feedback - guidance and answers provided at this stage are called
formative feedback.
Assess performance - take a final assessment.
Enhance retention and transfer to the job - Effective education will have a
"performance" focus.

Reigeluths Elaboration Theory

Reigeluths Elaboration Theory

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

6.
7.
8.

Organizing Course Structure: Single organisation for complete course

Simple to complex: start with simplest ideas, in the first lesson, and then
add elaborations in subsequent lessons.
Within-lesson sequence: general to detailed, simple to complex, abstract
to concrete.
Summarizers: content reviews presented in rule-example-practice format
Synthesizers: Presentation devices that help the learner integrate content
elements into a meaningful whole and assimilate them into prior knowledge,
e.g. a concept hierarchy, a procedural flowchart or decision table, or a
cause-effect model .
Analogies: relate the content to learners' prior knowledge, use multiple
analogies, especially with a highly divergent group of learners.
Cognitive strategies: variety of cues - pictures, diagrams, mnemonics, etc.
- can trigger cognitive strategies needed for processing of material.
Learner control: Learners are encouraged to exercise control over both
content and instructional strategy. Clear labelling and separation of strategy
components facilitates effective learner control of those components.

Component Display Theory

Component Display Theory (CDT) classifies learning along two

dimensions:

content

performance

facts, concepts, procedures, and principles

remembering, using, generalities

The theory specifies that instruction is more effective to the extent that it
contains all necessary primary and secondary forms. Thus, a complete
lesson would consist of objective followed by some combination of
rules, examples, recall, practice, feedback, helps and mnemonics
appropriate to the subject matter and learning task. Indeed, the theory
suggests that for a given objective and learner, there is a unique
combination of presentation forms that results in the most effective
learning experience.

Component Display Theory

Fact

Use

Find

Remember

Concept

Procedure

Principle

Component Display Theory

Fact

Concept

Procedure

Principle

Use

Identify or
Classify

Demonstrate
How to

Explain why or
predict

Find

State or Define

State steps

State
relationship

Recall or
Recognise
definition or
example

Recall or
Recognise
steps or
example

Recall or
Recognise
principles or
example

Remember

Recall or
Recognise

Component Display Theory

Active Learning
an

umbrella term that refers to several

models of instruction that focus the
responsibility of learning on learners.

Think-Pair-Share
The Pause Procedure
Fact Rounding
Network Phasing
Learning Cell
Active Writing
Team Quizzes

Active Learning

Think-Pair-Share

learners take a short amount of time (e.g. one minute) to

ponder the previous lesson,
Then they discuss it with one or more of their peers,
finally to share it with the class as part of a formal
discussion.

It is during this formal discussion that the instructor

should clarify misconceptions. However students
need a background in the subject matter to
converse in a meaningful way. Therefore a "think
pair share" exercise is useful in situations where
learners can identify and relate what they already
know to others.

Active Learning

The Pause Procedure

We know that even the most motivated student's
concentration declines after 10-15 minutes.
Teaching often requires students to play passive
roles and assume all students need the same
information at the same pace. By using three twominute pauses during the lecture (about every 13 to
18 minutes), the students are given the chance to
clarify, assimilate, and retain the information
presented during the prior mini-class. The pause
procedure can be used as a vehicle to carry into the
traditional class a variety of active and collaborative
learning structures.

Active Learning

The Pause Procedure

Examples of things do to during the 'pause' include;

Ask students to turn to their neighbour and summarize the main ideas the
instructor has just presented (e.g., List three major points in the last lecture
and one point you're confused on).
Ask students to read over their notes of the materials covered today and put
a question mark beside anything they want either clarification on or more
details on.
Ask students to take out a blank sheet of paper, pose a question (either
specific or open-ended), and give them one (or perhaps two - but not many
more) minute(s) to respond. Some sample questions include: "What are the
countries in Europe?", "What are 'Human Rights'?", "What is the different
between adverbs and adjectives?" and so on (one minute paper).
Ask students "What was the 'muddiest point' in today's class?" or, perhaps,
you might be more specific, asking, for example: "What (if anything) do you
find unclear about the lesson?" listing topics.
Ask students to report their reactions to some facet of the course material i.e., to provide an emotional or evaluative response to the material.

Active Learning
Fact

Rounding
The Fact rounding technique works as
follows, towards the end of a lesson the
students are asked to recall one fact from the
material covered. Another student should not
repeat a fact already mentioned and the
activity should continue until all the lesson
material has been covered.

Active Learning

Network Phasing

The activity of Phasing starts off with three groups in its first Phase. These
groups will each be assigned a particular section of a larger problem. All
groups are then given a specific amount of time to work on either fact finding
or a solution or both. The time frame most suitable for Phasing is two hours
but the approach taken can vary depending on the needs of the particular
problem. After a given period of time the group elect a leader to present their
findings. From this short presentation the students will learn about the
different sections of the larger problem.
Phase 2 begins with the original groups being split in two halves and those
halves coming to form two new groups. This formation ensures that all
students get exposure to all areas of the larger problem. The two new groups
will have a new solution or facts to find. Phase 2 develops in the same way
as Phase 1 and the elected leader of each group present the findings.
Phase 3 takes the form of a group discussion bringing the findings of Phase
2 together to form the solution to the larger problem. This discussion should
be lead by the teacher to ensure the students findings are correct and to
give suggested improvements.

Active Learning

Learning Cell
A learning cell is a process of learning where two students
alternate asking and answering questions on commonly read
materials. To prepare for the assignment, the students will read
the assignment and write down questions that they have about
the reading. At the next class meeting, the teacher will randomly
put the students in pairs. The process begins by designating one
student from each group to begin by asking one of their
questions to the other. Once the two students discuss the
question. The other student will ask a question and they will
alternate accordingly. During this time, the teacher is going
around the class from group to group giving feedback and
answering questions. This system is also referred to as a
student dyad (or pair).

Active Learning

Active Writing
The Active Writing technique is used as follows;

at the end of the lesson students are asked to submit

questions based on the material covered.
These questions are used as an introduction to the next
lesson.

The purpose of this activity is to ensure that the

students will have their questions answered and to
reflect on the material. This activity is different to the
other because it is spreads across two separate
lessons. This technique can also be used to gauge
students understanding of a subject based on the
questions they submit.

Active Learning

Team Quizzes
The team quizzes activity divides the class into two
groups (Group A and Group B). The groups are
given an amount of time to generate questions on
the material covered. The teacher aims Group As
questions to Group B and visa versa. If the group
give the correct answer a point is awarded,
otherwise the other group must give the answer. The
purpose of this approach is to promote the
generation of well thought out questions and
answers.

Six Thinking Hats

Six Hats Instructional Model

BLUE:

Introduction and overview of topic

WHITE:

Facts and Figures about the Topic

YELLOW:

Positive outcomes of Topic

BLACK:

Negative outcomes of Topic

GREEN:

Interesting outcomes of Topic

RED:

Personal, emotional and people-oriented aspects of

topic

WHITE:

Review of new facts uncovered

BLUE:

Summary and finish up

Other Micro Techniques

Learning

by teaching
Problem-based learning
Project-based learning
Inquiry-based learning
Action learning
Progressive inquiry
Service-learning

Quiz
Put these in order of importance on student
achievement;

Quiz
Put these in order of importance on student
achievement;

Lecturer influence

Quiz

Student influence

Put these in order of importance on student

achievement;