Yeast Cell

Don't forget the ribosomes they both have that make

Bacteria Cell:
proteins!

Contains
DNA

-For
photosynthesis
Contains
- Filled
with sap
chloroplasts
- Gives cell
strength

Specialised Cells

Respiration

Bigger than Bacteria

Has cytoplasm, a cell

membrane and a cell wall.
But its DNA is not in a
nucleus.

Circular DNA
found in
bacteria is
called a
plasmid

em
St

Aerobic

Anaerobic

Glucose + O2 =
CO2 + H2O + Energy

Just Glucose (No

Oxygen) =
Lactic Acid+ Energy

Occurs in Mitochondria

Occurs in Cytoplasm

+ cell wall

lls
Ce

Can respire aerobically and

anaerobically (this will make ethanol and

Why respire? Energy to build big

molecules from small ones, move muscles
is also called fermentation)
and keep you warm.
Cells that can become anything If youre using your muscle
undifferentiated
youll need more glucose
Embryonic stem cells can be made into any
type of cell (curing all sorts of disease) but
and oxygen, youll produce
come from aborted embryos (which can be a
more CO2

Remember cells are specialised for their job.

Sperm cells have long tails and are good
swimmers. They also have lots of mitochondria
to provide the energy they need.
problem)
Other examples include fat cells, cone cells and
We also don't know the long term effect of
root hair cells.
Adult bone marrow stem cells can also be used
theirbut
usecant
yet. be made into as
many different things but you can give permission to have them taken.
cells with
Beware the operation might be painful!

Body structure

A group of
similar function make
up TISSUE.
Tissues that all work
together make up an
ORGAN.

Organs together Many organs systems = An

No
make up an
rm
InORGAN organism!
SYSTEM. Like the
div al ce
pairs:
ll
isio
digestive system.
n

Base
Pairs
ATG
C

As I exercise my heart and

breathing rate will
increase.
Glycogen stores will be
broken down into glucose.
My blood will pump faster.

Remember when
describing graphs
compare the start,
During fertilisation geneticmiddle and end. Use
figures if you have them.

Biology Unit 2

(this the same in plants a

leaf is an example of an
organ)

3 bases
code for
one
amino
acid

(less energy)

After long periods of

exercise muscles will
tire. Without sufficient
oxygen they will
respire anaerobically.
Once exercise is over
the oxygen debt will
have to be repaid to
break down the lactic
acid made.

Good for repair

and growth. Or
Asexual
reproduction.

Mit
osi s

How
things
get in
and out
of cells...

Down the
concentration
gradient

Diffusion is where dissolved substances move

from a high concentration (where theres lots of them)
to a low concentration (where theres less) through a
semi-permeable
membrane.
Steeper gradient
(bigger difference
between the sides)

(this is why sex cell have half the chromosomes..Enzyme

When they are put together we are back to 23
Produced in
pairs)

Sex cell
division Meiosis

No

va
ria

e
ang A can s
i
N
t ch
t ha o ur D d e. T h
s
in
!
ion
ma
tat base otein blems
u
M ngle
pr
pro
si
t he
bigSome alleles
nge use
cha an ca
c

tio
n

Creates four
different sperm
or egg cells.
(gametes)

Meiosis is
two
Each
divisions!
cell made is haploid

Substrate

Products

Carbohydr
ases
(amylase)

Carbohydra
tes

Sugars

Proteases

Protein

Amino Acids

Lipases

Lipids (fats)

Fatty acids
and
Glycerol

and
BilePancreas
also
helps
small intestine
breakdown
(emulsify)
fats.Makes bile

Adaptations of the
digestive system

Acid in the stomach giving a low

pH for enzymes there.
Large surface area for
absorption in the small
intestine.
Bile to neutralize acid and create
alkaline
for enzymes
Youcondition
cant cure
genetic in
Enzymes can be used to treat
the intestine.

This means it contains half

the chromosomes of a
normal cell . Just 23... Not 23
Homozygous two identical alleles
pairs.
(both dominant or both recessive)

Heterozygous two different alleles

(one dominant and one recessive)
Its a

the:

Mouth,
Pancreas and
small intestine
Stomach

= faster diffusion!

Cell
division
f

n
tio Loa
ria
ds
va
o

Two identical daughter cells are made from

one parent cell. Each containing 23 complete
n a pairs of chromosomes.
ev e

are
recessive,
some are
dominant.

... Like
oxygen
and
glucose.

information from two parents is

combine.

Genotype The genetic code (Dd or dd)

Phenotype Physical appearance
caused by the alleles

Stores bile

and diagnose disease.

Cystic Fibrosis

effects the lungs.

Extra mucus is made
making it difficult
breathe.
It is treated using
physio and antibiotics.

We have 23 pairsboy!
of
chromosomes.
( brown hair, blonde hair)
If you are female the last
Mendel the monk Alleles are
different
pair
is
XX
if
you
are
male
its
We can use
was the first
versions of
XYgenetic
It is cause by a
the same
person to
gene. twin have identical DNA
diagrams to
Identical
realised we
recessive allele so
predict
inherited traits Everyone else has completely
both parents have to
characteristics.
Family trees can also be carry the allele and
unique DNA
from our parents.
Remember to
used to trace how a disease is
Today we know We can identify a person using DNA
Dominant
two recessive
state
theGenes give the instructions inherited.
fingerprinting
Thiscode
is used
we inherit
genes
Genes
are small
sections
of DNA ..
that
fortoasolve
particular
trait.
for which amino acidsdisorder
(dominant ones
overpower recessive
ones)

disorders because you cant

change the DNA in all your
cells.
Recessive

disorder

Polydactyly is a
disorder were you
are born with an
extra fingers or
toes.
It is cause by a

dominant allele
so is likely to
appear (50%
chance) in children
if a parent has it.
You only need one

catalysts

Dont forget enzymes are

proteins made up of amino
acids.

A species is endemic if it is only found in one place.

Extinction the permanent loss ofTime

Natural
a species
selection

It is difficult to know how life began as there is little

evidence for this.

Enzymes are biological

us Iso
ed m
fr sw to er
a
u
ct ee m se
os t e a k i
e n et s
sy er he
ru
p.

To begin with heat

(they speed up reactions but arent
DENused
means that
will help increase
Can be caused by
A
up)
TUR collisions
certain alleles
between
ED
New predators (humans ate all the dodos)
are passed on
When we look at a
the enzymes and
when a trait is
New disease
fossil we can
Geographical
useful for an
substrates BUT too
(Plagues have almost wiped us out several times)
compare them to see
organisms new
hot and it will
Isolation
environment. More successful competitors
differences and
denature.
Enzymes are also easily affected
by pH When a population
(who would win in a fight, you or a shark?)
similarities which
(remember denature NOT
changes.
Remember the
becomes physically Dramatic change in the environment- Mass have occurred as an
die)
We need highly specific conditions to
active site is
organism has
extinction
separated by water
keep them working at their best.
very specific.
(ice age or asteroid strikes)
evolved.
Fossils
are the
ice new
specieswhen organisms are
OPTIMUM CONDITIONS! (each enzyme
Only the
Useful
A neworspecies
is formed
Who knows what got the dinosaurs?
has its own favourite conditions )
matching
Enzymes
can
remains
of
organisms
Enzymes:
so differentarise.
they can no longer interbreed
build up or will
substrate
Proteases used
in rocks.
.This is Speciation.
break down
fit.
in baby food.
Reproducibility: An experiment is
substrates.
They
tell us about
Substrates
Biological
Mean/Average Add all the values
better if others can repeat and get
include
organisms
that
washing
together and divide by the number of
carbohydrates
similar results.
powders
lived
millions
of
, proteins and
values used.
They work at low temps which
This is very difficult when working with nature so
contain
fats.
uses
less electricityenzymes
and saves the
years
ago.
(remember to leave out anomalies)
oI
you must control as many variables as you can.
to environment.
break down
How d
Median
The middle value of the range.
e
s
Can be formed from
o
o
food stains.
ch
st
Mode The most frequently occurring
bone that doesnt decay
the be
Control
Variables:
Things
you
keep
Quadrats
to
e
value.
easily.
c
You
can
use
a
quadrat
to
la
p
help you count
Constant
Can be preserved
compare two areas placing
live?
the organisms in
footprints or droppings.
them randomly
a area.
Is there
Can (very rarely) happen
or
Independent Variable: The thing I
(normally
plants)
food?
when no decay has
you can move them along a line
change
(nutrients if
occurred and something
called a transect and see
youre a
Dependent
Variable: The
The bigger
thing thats
Remember:
is trapped in ice.
plant)
how things change in an
measured
or recorded.
the sample
size the
environment moving away of
Is it
towards a feature like water.
valid and reliable your
warm
e
conclusionsriptiv
enough?
sc
(temperatur
e)

Is there
enough light? Is there
(more important to
water?
plants)

Super
IMPORTANT!!!
CO2 +

Is enough
oxygen or
CO2?

Measuring Organisms See how

Data collected
can be used to find the
distribution
changes

(for respiration and

photosynthesis)

CO2 + Water
Water
Glucose
Glucose +
+ O2
O2

range, mean, median and mode.

Leaves are adapted for
photosynthesis

For waterproofing

Leaves
have a
big
surface
area to
absorb
as much
light as
possible

Cells with loads of

chloroplast for
photosynthesis

e
:D
ith
ata
Greenhouses can use our
d
ta w
ve sults
a
i
t
D
knowledge of limiting factors to
a
:
e
t
r
i
a
al
is a way of maximise production,
dat Hydroponics
es
Qu
ve valugrowing
plants in water with making plants grow faster.
i
t
ita cise
the perfect balance of
ant
re
nutrients. The temperature is
QuThis is whypyou
must
also controlled. Lights are kept
have chocolate when
you revise!
Use to on and CO2 is pumped into the
produ
ce
greenhouse.
ation
Increasing the
for gro proteins
respir
wth
Use in
temperature will

Glucose

Stored as
insolubl
e
Starch
Lots of air spaces for
gaseous exchange
and
ce fats
produ
e
to
g
d
ra
e
Us
r sto
oils fo

Stomata to allow gases in

out Xylem brings water to the leaves from

Chloroplasts are andThe
the roots.
found in the green
parts of plants and The Phloem transports the sugars made in

speed up
photosynthesis to the
point it gets too hot
and enzymes
denature.

The rate of photosynthesis

may be slowed by a lack of
light, CO2 or if its too cold.

(temperature is a limiting factor as

To make proteins
enzymes are effected)
plants also need to
esis
th
n
g
y
oto s limitin
Limiting
absorb Nitrates
e
r ph
e
th
b
with
me m
from the soil to build Rilel increasefactors. maximum
Factors Here light is no
a
w
o ne
t to
her
longer the limiting
amino acids.
u ge r an ot .
o
factor
y
o
e
ct
ing
On c
No nitrates will
at fa
limit
for th will be
lead to stunted
Plants also use Magnesium to make
growth
chlorophyll No Magnesium = Yellow