Equalization, Diversity, and

Channel Coding

 Three techniques are used independently or in tandem to

improve receiver signal quality
Equalization compensates for ISI created by multipath
fading with time dispersive channels (W>Bc)
Diversity also compensates for fading channel
impairments, and is usually implemented by using two
or more receiving antennas
Multiple received copies: Spatial diversity, frequency
diversity and time diversity.

Channel Coding improves mobile communication link

performance by adding redundant data bits in the
transmitted message
Channel coding is used by the Rx to detect or correct some
(or all) of the errors introduced by the channel.

BER

( Pe )

Frequency-selective channel
(equalization )
Frequency-selective channel
(no equalization)
BER floor
AWGN
channel (no
fading)

Flat fading channel

SNR

10-2
5

BPSK

2
10-3
5

For Pe = 10-6
Uncoded
10.5 dB
Hamming 10.0 dB
BCH
6.5 dB
Conv.
5.0 dB

2
10-4
5
Pe

Uncoded

Hamming

10-5
BCH

5
Conv.

2
10-6
5
2
10-7

6
8
SNR (dB)

10

12

14

Bit error probabilityAWGN channel

Motivation of Diversity Techniques

If a fading radio signal is received through only one
channel, then in a deep fade, the signal could be lost, and
there is nothing that can be done.
Diversity is a way to protect against deep fades, a choice
to combat fading.
The key: create multiple channels or branches that have
uncorrelated fading

 By sending signals that carry the same information

through different paths, multiple independently faded
replicas of data symbols are obtained at the receiver end
and more reliable detection/decoding can be achieved.
In this case the probability that all signal copies fade
simultaneously is reduced dramatically with respect to the
probability that a single copy experiences a fade.
The diversity techniques operate over time, frequency or
space, but the basic idea is the same.
Example: send the same bits in different time slots with
independent fading

 Diversity Schemes
Time/ Temporal Diversity
Frequency Diversity
Space/ Spatial Diversity also called antenna diversity

BER vs. SNR in a flat fading channel

Lets consider a flat fading channel (or narrowband
system) with time-varying complex coefficient h.
The received signal at time instant t is of the form
y (t ) h(t )e j ( t ) x(t ) n(t )
We assume that the phase changes slowly and can be perfectly tracked
=> important for coherent detection

We assume:
the time-variant complex channel coefficient, h, changes slowly
(=> constant during a symbol interval)
the channel coefficient is a Rayleigh distributed random
variable

 Let us define instantaneous SNR and average SNR:

0 E

h Eb N 0

As a rough rule:
Pe is proportional to
BER
BER

Average
Average SNR
SNR

regardless of modulation scheme

Diversity
Diversity of
of
L:th
L:th order
order

BER vs. SNR (diversity effect)

BER

( Pe )

AWGN
channel (no
fading)

Flat fading channel,

Rayleigh fading,
L=1

SNR
L=4

L=3

L=2

The largest diversity gain is obtained when moving from L = 1 to L = 2.

The relative increase in diversity gain becomes smaller and smaller
when L is further increased.
This behaviour is typical for all diversity techniques.

 Once you have created two or more channels or branches

that have uncorrelated fading, what do you do with them?

 Once you have created two or more channels or branches

that have uncorrelated fading, what do you do with them?
Techniques applied to combine the multiple received
signals of a diversity reception device into a single
improved signal.
Combining Techniques

Selection Combining (SC)

Scanning Combining (ScC)
Maximal Ratio Combining (MRC)
Equal Gain Combining (EGC)

Time Diversity
Transmission in which signals representing the same
information are sent over the same channel at different
times.
The delay between replicas > channel coherence time; it
results in uncorrelated channels.
Diversity over time can be obtained via coding and
interleaving
Simplest code: Repetition code
To ensure the coded symbols are transmitted through
independent or nearly independent fading channels,
interleaving of codewords is required.
It breaks the memory of the channel, not all bits of the
codeword are likely to fall into a deep fade

Interleaver

Interleaving is a form of time diversity; rearranges the

data so that consecutive bits are transmitted over
independent channels
Usually combined with coding to provide protection against
burst errors caused by fading

 The codewords are

transmitted over
consecutive symbols
(top) and interleaved
(bottom)
A deep fade will wipe
out the entire codeword
in the former case but
only one coded symbol
from each codeword in
the latter
In the latter case, each
codeword can still be
recovered from the
other three unfaded
symbols

 Consider a codeword x x1 , x2 ,
, xL
transmitted
over flat
fading channels.
The received signal: yl hl xl nl , l 1,, L
Repetition code:
Received signal
where

x xl , l
y y1 , , y L hx n
T

h h1 , , hand
L
T

n n1 , , nL

 Error probability as a function of SNR for different

numbers of diversity branches L

Frequency Diversity
The same information signal is transmitted and received
simultaneously on two or more independent fading carrier
frequencies.
The rational behind this technique is that frequencies
separated by more than the coherence bandwidth of the
channel will not experience the same fade.
As two or more different frequencies experience different
fading, at least one will have strong signal
Frequency diversity consumes extra bandwidth

Space Diversity
A method of transmission or reception, or both, in which
the effects of fading are minimized by the simultaneous
use of two or more physically separated antennas, ideally
separated by multiple wavelengths.
Uncorrelated branches
distance between antennas /2,
where is the wavelength

Signals received from sufficiently separated antennas on

the receiver would have essentially uncorrelated signals.
Space diversity types:
Transmit diversity
Receive diversity

 Single-input, single-output (SISO) channel

No spatial diversity

Single-input, multiple-output (SIMO) channel

Receive diversity

Multiple-input, single-output (MISO) channel

Transmit diversity

Multiple-input, multiple-output (MIMO) channel

Combined transmit and receive diversity

Transmit Diversity
The use of multiple antenna elements at the transmitter to
create transmit diversity.
When there are more transmit antennas than the receive
antennas, this is called transmit diversity
The simplest scenario uses two TX and one RX antenna
(MISO, 2x1).

In this case, the same data is transmitted redundantly over

two antennas.

 To generate a redundant signal, space-time codes are used.

Alamouti developed the first codes for two antennas.
Space-time codes additionally improve the performance
and make spatial diversity usable.
The signal copy is transmitted not only from a different
antenna but also at a different time.
Space-time codes combine spatial and temporal signal
copies.

Receive Diversity
The use of multiple antenna elements at the receiver to
create receive diversity.
When there are more receive antennas than the transmit
antennas, this is called receive diversity
The simplest scenario uses two RX and one TX antenna
(SIMO, 1x2).

Because of the different transmission paths, the receiver

sees two differently faded signals.

 Because of the different transmission paths, the receiver

sees two differently faded signals.
By using the appropriate method in the receiver, the
signal-to-noise ratio can now be increased.

Diversity Combining Techniques

Selection Combining (SC)
Strongest signal is selected.

Scanning (Switching) Combining

Signal above a given threshold is used. Switching to a
different branch if it drops below the threshold.

Maximal Ratio Combining (MRC)

Signals are summed after optimal weighting proportional to
individual SNRs. Goal is to maximize SNR at the combiner
output.

Equal Gain Combining (EGC)

Branch signals are added (Maximal Ratio with equal weights).

 Individual branches are

j l

A
e
weighed by l
and
l
summed.
Selection and Threshold
Combining: all l = 0, except
one.
Maximal Ratio Combining:
l function of l.
Equal Gain: l = 1.

Selection Combining
Selecting the best signal among all the signals received
from different braches at the receiving end.
Receiver selects branch with highest instantaneous SNR

max l ,

l 1, , L

The chance that all the branches are in deep fade

simultaneously is very low.
Selection combining is easy
to implement because all
that is needed is a side
monitoring station and an
antenna switch at the
receiver.

 However it is not an optimal diversity technique

because it does not use all of the possible branches
simultaneously.

Scanning Combining
Scan each antenna until a signal is found that is above
predetermined threshold
The signal is used as long as its SNR is above threshold.
Also called switch and stay combining.

If signal drops below threshold rescan.

Must set appropriate threshold relative to mean level
Performance always worse than selection combining

Maximal Ratio Combining

Combining all the signals with optimal
weighting so as to have the highest
achievable SNR at the receiver at all
times
Maximal ratio combining (MRC)
obtains the weights that maximizes the
output SNR, i.e., it is optimal in terms
of SNR.
A means of combining the signals from
all receiver branches, so that signals
with a higher received power have a
larger influence on the final output
L
The output SNR is, therefore, the sum
l l
of the SNR at each branch/element.

Summing

1
2

l 1

Detector

Equal Gain Combining

Summing

1
1
1

Simplified method of Maximal Ratio

Combining
Combining all the signals with unity
weights for all signal levels.
Better performance than selection
combining. However a slight
performance degradation compared to
MRC.

Detector