IT4 Properties of Solutions

Solutions
Solutions are homogeneous mixtures of two
or more pure substances.
In a solution, the solute is dispersed
uniformly throughout the solvent.

KINDS OF SOLUTIONS

SOLUTION AND SOLUBILITIES

Solutions
The intermolecular
forces between solute
and solvent particles
must be strong enough
to compete with those
between solute
particles and those
between solvent
particles.

How Does a Solution Form?

As a solution forms, the solvent pulls solute
particles apart and surrounds, or solvates,
them.

How Does a Solution Form

If an ionic salt is
soluble in water, it
is because the iondipole interactions
are strong enough
to overcome the
lattice energy of
the salt crystal.

Energy Changes in Solution

Simply put, three
processes affect the
energetic of the
process:
Separation of solute
particles
Separation of solvent
particles
New interactions
between solute and
solvent

Energy Changes in Solution

The enthalpy
change of the
overall process
depends on H for
each of these steps.

Why Do Endothermic Processes

Occur?
Things do not tend to
occur spontaneously
(i.e., without outside
intervention) unless
the energy of the
system is lowered.

Why Do Endothermic Processes

Occur?

Yet we know that in

some processes,
like the dissolution
of NH4NO3 in water,
heat is absorbed,
not released.

Enthalpy Is Only Part of the

Picture
The reason is that
increasing the disorder
or randomness (known
as entropy) of a
system tends to lower
the energy of the
system.

Enthalpy Is Only Part of the

Picture
So even though
enthalpy may
increase, the overall
energy of the system
can still decrease if
the system becomes
more disordered.

Student, Beware!

Just because a substance disappears when

it comes in contact with a solvent, it
doesnt mean the substance dissolved.

Student, Beware!

Dissolution is a physical changeyou can get back

the original solute by evaporating the solvent.
If you cant, the substance didnt dissolve, it reacted.

Types of Solutions
Saturated
Solvent holds as
much solute as is
possible at that
temperature.
Dissolved solute is in
dynamic equilibrium
with solid solute
particles.

Types of Solutions
Unsaturated
Less than the
maximum amount
of solute for that
temperature is
dissolved in the
solvent.

Types of Solutions

Supersaturated
Solvent holds more solute than is normally
possible at that temperature.
These solutions are unstable; crystallization can
usually be stimulated by adding a seed crystal
or scratching the side of the flask.

Terms solubility

Soluble
: Less than 1
Easily dissolved
: 1 to 10
Late
: 10 to 30
Slightly soluble
: 30-100
Sparingly soluble
: 100 - 1000
Very sparingly soluble: 1000-10000
Practically insoluble:> 10,000

Factors Affecting Solubility

Chemists use the axiom
like dissolves like:
Polar substances tend to
dissolve in polar
solvents.
No polar substances tend
to dissolve in no polar
solvents.

Factors Affecting Solubility

The more similar

the intermolecular
attractions, the
more likely one
substance is to be
soluble in another.

Factors Affecting Solubility

Glucose (which has
hydrogen bonding)
is very soluble in
water, while
cyclohexane (which
only has dispersion
forces) is not.

Factors Affecting Solubility

Vitamin A is soluble in nonpolar compounds
(like fats).
Vitamin C is soluble in water.

Gases in Solution
In general, the
solubility of gases in
water increases with
increasing mass.
Larger molecules
have stronger
dispersion forces.

Gases in Solution
The solubility of
liquids and solids
does not change
appreciably with
pressure.
The solubility of a
gas in a liquid is
directly
proportional to its
pressure.

Henrys Law
Sg = kPg
where
Sg is the solubility of
the gas;
k is the Henrys law
constant for that gas
in that solvent;
Pg is the partial
pressure of the gas
above the liquid.

Temperature

Generally, the
solubility of solid
solutes in liquid
solvents increases
with increasing
temperature.

Temperature
The opposite is true
of gases:
Carbonated soft
drinks are more
bubbly if stored in
the refrigerator.
Warm lakes have
less O2 dissolved in
them than cool
lakes.

Ways of Expressing Concentrations

of Solutions

Mass Percentage
Mass % of A = mass of A in solution
total mass of solution
1.
2.
3.
4.

% w/v
% w/w
% v/v
BJ
= w/vol = gr/ml

100

Parts per Million and

Parts per Billion

Parts per Million (ppm)

ppm
=

mass of A in solution
total mass of solution

106

Parts per Billion (ppb)

ppb =

mass of A in solution
total mass of solution

109

Mole Fraction (X)

XA =

moles of A
total moles in solution

In some applications, one needs the

mole fraction of solvent, not solute
make sure you find the quantity you
need!

Molarity (M)
M=

mol of solute
L of solution

You will recall this concentration

measure from Chapter 4.
Because volume is temperature
dependent, molarity can change with
temperature.

Molality (m)
m=

mol of solute
kg of solvent

Because both moles and mass do not

change with temperature, molality
(unlike molarity) is not temperature
dependent.

Changing Molarity to Molality

If we know the
density of the
solution, we can
calculate the
molality from the
molarity, and vice
versa.

Colligative Properties
Changes in colligative properties
depend only on the number of solute
particles present, not on the identity
of the solute particles.
Among colligative properties are
Vapor pressure lowering
Boiling point elevation
Melting point depression
Osmotic pressure

Vapor Pressure
Because of solutesolvent
intermolecular
attraction, higher
concentrations of
nonvolatile solutes
make it harder for
solvent to escape to
the vapor phase.

Vapor Pressure
Therefore, the vapor
pressure of a solution
is lower than that of
the pure solvent.

Raoults Law
PA = XAPA
where
XA is the mole fraction of compound A
PA is the normal vapor pressure of A at
that temperature
NOTE: This is one of those times when
you want to make sure you have the
vapor pressure of the solvent.

Boiling Point Elevation and Freezing

Point Depression
Nonvolatile solutesolvent interactions
also cause solutions
to have higher
boiling points and
lower freezing points
than the pure
solvent.

Boiling Point Elevation

The change in boiling
point is proportional to
the molality of the
solution:
Tb = Kb m

Tb is added to the normal boiling point of

the solvent.

where Kb is the molal

boiling point elevation
constant, a property of
the solvent.

Freezing Point Depression

The change in freezing
point can be found
similarly:
Tf = Kf m
Here Kf is the molal
freezing point
depression constant of
T is subtracted from the normal freezing point of the solvent.
f

the solvent.

Boiling Point Elevation and Freezing

Point Depression
Note that in both
equations, T does
not depend on what
the solute is, but
only on how many
particles are
dissolved.

Tb = Kb m
Tf = Kf m

Colligative Properties of Electrolytes

Since these properties depend on the number of
particles dissolved, solutions of electrolytes (which
dissociate in solution) should show greater changes
than those of nonelectrolytes.

Colligative Properties of Electrolytes

However, a 1 M solution of NaCl does not
show twice the change in freezing point that
a 1 M solution of methanol does.

vant Hoff Factor

One mole of NaCl in

water does not
really give rise to
two moles of ions.

vant Hoff Factor

Some Na+ and Cl
reassociate for a
short time, so the
true concentration
of particles is
somewhat less than
two times the
concentration of
NaCl.

The vant Hoff Factor

Reassociation is
more likely at
higher
concentration.
Therefore, the
number of particles
present is
concentration
dependent.

The vant Hoff Factor

We modify the
previous equations
by multiplying by
the vant Hoff factor,
i

Tf = Kf m i

Osmosis
Some substances form
semipermeable membranes, allowing
some smaller particles to pass
through, but blocking other larger
particles.
In biological systems, most
semipermeable membranes allow
water to pass through, but solutes are
not free to do so.

Osmosis

In osmosis, there is net movement of solvent

from the area of higher solvent
concentration (lower solute concentration) to
the are of lower solvent concentration
(higher solute concentration).

Osmotic Pressure
The pressure required to stop
osmosis, known as osmotic pressure,
, is

=(

n
)
RT = MRT
V

where M is the molarity of the solution

If the osmotic pressure is the same on both sides of a membrane (i.e.,
the concentrations are the same), the solutions are isotonic.

Osmosis in Blood Cells

If the solute
concentration outside
the cell is greater
than that inside the
cell, the solution is
hypertonic.
Water will flow out of
the cell, and crenation
results.

Osmosis in Cells
If the solute
concentration outside
the cell is less than
that inside the cell,
the solution is
hypotonic.
Water will flow into
the cell, and
hemolysis results.

Molar Mass from

Colligative Properties

We can use the

effects of a colligative
property such as
osmotic pressure to
determine the molar
mass of a compound.

NaCl salt solution with Blood

0.9% NaCl put into the blood does not cause
changes to the cells isotonic with the cell
contents
Osmotic pressure of a solution of 0.9% salt =
osmotic pressure of the cell contents
isotonic
NaCl <0.9% hipotonis
Kons. 0.47% NaCl will stretch the
membrane so that Hb will come out
(haemolysis)
The salt solution is> 0.9% hypertonic

Membrane blood
Membrane that surrounds the blood is perfect
paddling semipermeable membrane, because
not only permeable For solvent molecules but
also permeable solutes For bbrp
The movement of the fluid is not regulated by
Kons total of solute molecules of each
solution but by Kons. insoluble molecules
through the membrane

Membrane blood
Permeable to substances:
monosaccharides, H3O +, OH-, Cl-, and
HCO3 and a little glycerin
Impermeable to substances:
disaccharides, amino acids (protein),
polyvalent alcohols, Na +, K +
Blood Glucose with a solution of 5%
isotonic ???? Isotonic = 5.54%

DISTRIBUTION
Alcohol + water = mixed
Ether + water, water + Chloroform, benzene
+ water = do not mix, when added to the
solute will be divided between the two fluids.
Solute particles with kinetic movement will
move from one fluid to the other until
equilibrium

At constant temperature equilibrium and

then the concentration ratio of the
solute in the two liquids have a constant
called the coefficient of the price
distribution

DISTRIBUTION
If A and B are immiscible solvents, the solute will
be divided into A and B
K = Kons. Solutes within A,
Kons. SOLTE within B
The price does not depend on the volume of
solvent but depending on the dilution of each
solvent
Koef this division may be used in
- Narcotics - Extraction
Effective narcotics substances, depending on
koef. Distribution within lar. solution of water and
fat in living cells

EXTRACTION
Withdrawal of a substance from a solution /
mixture by adding another solvent.
W gram

V1ml
extraction with V2 m1. rest within V1 W1
concentration = w1 / V1 g / mol 2
concentration of solute in V2 Kons. = ww1 / V2 3 Terms, the second solvent is not
bercamp the first solvent

Distribution coefficient
Koef. Distribution (K) = W1V1,
(w-w1) / V2
W1 = W K V1
K V1 + V2
This process can be repeated n times after
extraction
Wn = W (K V1 / V1 + V2 K) n
So the most efficient extraction occurs when
n large and small V2

Chromatography
Solute separation by a migration process in the
system consisting of two or more phases
There are differences in the mobility of substances,
because there is a difference. in adsorption,
partition, solubility, vapor pressure, molecular size.
Type Chromatography:
1 Kr. paper
2 Kr. Thin Layer
3 Kr. High Performance Liquid
4. Kr. gas
5. Kr. column

Paper Chromatography
Paper
-Solvent move upward because
any power capillarity
-Solute Of the mixture will
migrate paper along
with the speed.
different form
series of spots that
separate
Solvent
-Kuantitatif - stains
cut out and dissolved -- spectrophotometry.

Paper Chromatography
Penotolan (spotting) wear micro pipette 1-2 uL
Staining (Locating) to see / detect stains. Chemical
spray. eg for as amino + --- purple ninhydrin.
Sulfa + HCl ---- PDAB orange
Fluorescence Physics with Ultra Violet rays.
Solvent: eluer = fluid used in chromatography
Elution = flow eluer on the stationary phase
Rf = Retardation Flow = perband. the distance of a
comp. (R1) with a solvent distance (R2)

TLC
Analysis of drugs and other materials in the
laboratory
Simple equipment, and time short enough
The sample is quite small ( 0,01gr pure
compound, 0.1 g crude drug)
Not required large room
Simple construction techniques
TLC is a physicochemical separation methods
based on absorption, partition (division), and
grain thin separator plate absorber.

TLC
Closed
patches

15

- Samples were spotted

in form circular
radius of 2-6 mm

Vessel
- The distance between
spots 2 cm
- Creepage distance of
cm

Thin Layer Chromatography

Rf = distance of propagation of a compound,
mobile phase Creepage
Determination of the location of the spotting
Spotting generated in Kr. Paper or TLC
location can be specified
In Chromatography. Columns, HPLC, Gas
Chromatography parameter identification is
the retention time.

Colloids:
Suspensions of particles larger than
individual ions or molecules, but too small
to be settled out by gravity.

Tyndall Effect
Colloidal suspensions
can scatter rays of
light.
This phenomenon is
known as the Tyndall
effect.

Colloids in Biological
Systems
Some molecules have
a polar, hydrophilic
(water-loving) end
and a nonpolar,
hydrophobic (waterhating) end.

Colloids in Biological
Systems

Sodium stearate
is one example
of such a
molecule.

Colloids in Biological
Systems
These molecules
can aid in the
emulsification of
fats and oils in
aqueous solutions.