ENGR 1121

Real World
Measurements
Franklin Olin College of Engineering, Spring 2011

The Op Amp and Differential

Amplifier the workhorses
of Analog Sensor Interfaces

Hazards of not understanding electrical

interfaces
From the Arkansas Democrat Gazette, July 25, 1996:
Two Local Men Injured in Freak Truck Accident Cotton Patch, Ark.
Two local men were seriously injured when their pick-up truck left the road and struck a tree near Cotton Patch on
State Highway 38 early Monday morning.
Thurston Poole, 33, of Des Arc and Billy Ray Wallis, 38, of Little Rock are listed in serious condition at Baptist
Medical Center.
The accident occurred as the two men were returning to Des Arc after a frog gigging trip. On an overcast Sunday
night, Poole's pick-up truck headlights malfunctioned. The two men concluded that the headlight fuse on the
older model truck had burned out. As a replacement fuse was not available, Wallis noticed that the .22 caliber
bullet from his pistol fit perfectly into the fuse box next to the steering wheel column. Upon inserting the bullet,
the headlights again began to operate properly and the two men proceeded on east-bound toward the White
River bridge.
After traveling approximately twenty miles and just before crossing the river, the bullet apparently overheated,
discharged and struck Poole in the right testicle. The vehicle swerved sharply to the right exiting the
pavement and striking a tree. Poole suffered only minor cuts and abrasion from the accident, but will require
surgery to repair the other wound. Wallis sustained a broken clavicle and was treated and released.
"Thank God we weren't on that bridge when Thurston shot his nuts off or we might both be dead stated Wallis.
"I've been a trooper for ten years in this part of the world, but this is a first for me. I can't believe that those
two would admit how this accident happened", said Snyder.
Upon being notified of the wreck, Lavinia, Poole's wife, asked how many frogs the boys had caught and did
anyone get them from the truck.

Factoid I :
Almost all modern sensors are intended to ultimately
generate an electrical output.

Factoid 2 :
The sensor generates one of the following, which is a
function of the phenomenon being measured:
a very small voltage or current
a variable resistance
a variable capacitance or inductance
a variable periodic pulse width or frequency

Basic types of sensor interface

circuits

Differential Amplifier- Best for sensors with neither

output wire internally grounded. Often produces very
small voltages or currents susceptible to noise.
Balanced Resistive (Wheatstone) Bridge - For
variable resistance sensors, or measuring a voltage
against a reference.
Balanced Resonant Bridge - For variable inductance
or capacitance sensors.
Optical Interface - For measurement of variable light
transmission
Counter/timer Circuits - For totaling, timing or digitally
integrating outputs of sensors that produce pulses.
Direct Digital Interface - When the native phenomena
is already in binary format

Sensors, detectors and transducers that

produce small voltages or currents
Examples: Thermocouple, photovoltaic (solar) cell, automotive
exhaust oxygen sensor, microphone, guitar pickup, phono cartridge,
piezo-electric (crystal) strain sensors, magnetic tape or computer hard
drive head, pH probe, ECG or EEG measurements from skin
contacts, capacitive switch, GeigerMller counter, magnetic position
sensor.
Sensor impedance

Sensor usually
produces a weak
voltage.

Thevenin equivalent circuit

Induced noise
appears on
both input
wires if they
are run close
together

+
_

Example: Thermocouple
Two different metals welded together to form a junction
(e.g., Iron-Constantan, Chromium-Alumel)
Some commonly used thermocouples:
Type

Material

Wire Color

Temperature Range (deg C, deg F)

Iron Constantan*

Red/White

0 to 750C

32 to 1382F

Chrome Alumel**

Red/Yellow

200 to 1250C

328 to 2282F

Copper Constantan Red/Blue

200 to 350C

328 to 662F

Chrome Constantan Red/Purple

200 to 900C

328 to 1652F

* 55% copper and 45% nickel alloy

** 95% nickel, 2% manganese, 2% aluminium, 1% silicon alloy
http://www.omega.com/techref/themointro.html

Measurement of small voltages: single-ended

connection
Single-ended (grounded) sensor connection.
Noise reduction method: passive EMI shielding
shield

Single
signal wire,
often run in
a shielded
cable

_
+
A voltage-producing
sensor or transducer

grounded sensor

Op amp circuit amplifies

signal and induced
noise equally

Improved measurement of small voltages:

differential connection
Differential (floating) sensor connections.
Noise reduction method: Common Mode Rejection (CMR).
Example: Thermocouple
Measurement
junction

Floating inputs
neither is
grounded so
induced noise
voltage appears
equally on both.
_
+

Ungrounded
sensor

Both signal wires

run close to each
other as a twisted
pair or in a
shielded cable

Reference
junction

Op amp circuit
amplifies only the
difference between
the two floating
inputs

Sensors, detectors and transducers that

produce variable resistances
Examples: Thermistor, piezoresistor or semiconductor strain gauge or
pressure gauge, carbon grain microphone (telephone), CDS
photocell, photodetector or phototransistor, skin resistance, thoracic
impedance (for adaptive pacemaker, start of combustion (ionization)
sensor, Hall effect sensor, simple switch.
Usually less susceptible to EMI noise due to lower impedance.
Vref
Rpull-up
Sensor
resistance
varies with
phenomenon
to be
measured

Voltage
varies with
phenomena to
be measured

+
_

Noise voltage
added to input
voltage.

Exampl
e:
Strain gauge using a balanced bridge circuit.
VCC

R1
Strain
gauge

Differential
voltage
measurement

R3
Adjustable pot to
balance the
bridge

The Operational
Amplifier a
fundamental
Analog
Almost every analog sensor
requires IC
one or more
op-amps for its interface.
They are typically used as differential amplifiers,
with very high input impedance, low output
impedance, and high gain. With negative
feedback, they are highly linear.

Non-Inverting Input v+
Inverting Input v-

+
_

Output y

The Operational Amplifier

(a quick review of analysis and applications)

The Ideal Op-Amp Assumptions:

1.
2.
3.
4.

Zero output impedance

Infinite input impedance
Infinite* differential gain, GD or just G
* implies that v+ v- for VOUT in linear range
Zero common mode gain, GCM

These assumptions are only valid at low-medium frequencies (bandwidth limited),

and if we dont care too much about the maximum rate that the output
voltage can change (slew rate). Every op amp is characterized by a
Gain-Bandwidth (GBW) Product that may limit the use of the device in
a high-frequency application.

The Operational Amplifier

In an inverting configuration...
V V 0

Rf

KCL at V node yields :

VOUT

Ri
VIN

Rf

VIN
Ri

v- _
v+

VOUT

The Operational Amplifier

Ideal Op-Amp analysis of inverting configuration...
IRi IRf 0

Rf
Ri
VIN

IRi

vv+

IRf

( 1)

IRi

VIN V
Ri

IRf

VOUT V
Rf

Substitute into (1). Solve for V- .

VOUT G(V V ) G( 0 V )

VOUT =
G x (V+ - V-)

_+

( 2)

Combine (1) and (2) to eventually get :

G
VOUT
V
Ri IN
1 ( G 1)
RF
as G ,

VOUT

RF
VIN
Ri

The Operational Amplifier

In a non-inverting configuration...
v+
VIN

v- _
IRf

IRi

Ri

Rf

VOUT

I Ri I Rf 0

(1)

I Ri

0 V
Ri

I Rf

VOUT V
Rf

Substitute into (1). Solve for V- .

VOUT G (V V ) G (0 V )

( 2)

Combine (1) and (2) to eventually get :

VOUT

G
Ri
1 G
RF Ri

as G ,

VIN

R
VOUT 1 F
Ri

VIN

The Operational Amplifier

A special case of the non-inverting
configuration: Unity gain follower...
v+

VOUT G (VIN VOUT )

+
VIN

v-

VOUT

G
VOUT
VIN
1 G
as G VOUT VIN
No gain, so what good
is this circuit?

The Operational Amplifier

An analog weighted summing amplifier...
Rf
V1
V2

R1

VOUT

v- _
R2

v+

VOUT

Rf
Rf

V1
V2
R2
R1

The Differential Amplifier

Ideally, only amplifies the difference between the two inputs.
Used when neither side of a sensor connection is grounded.
REJECTS COMMON-MODE NOISE
R2

R1

V1

V2

+
R1

VOUT
VOUT

R2

G
R1 R2

V2 V1

R1

1 G
R1 R2

For G VOUT
R2

R2
V2 V1
R1

Differential Mode v.s. Common Mode

Differential Mode: amplifies V1 - V2
Common Mode: amplifies V1 and V2

R2

Differential Mode Gain : VOUT

R2
V2 V1
R1

Common Mode Gain : VOUT GCommon (V2 V1 )

R1

V1

V2

+
R1

R2

where G Common is very very small

VOUT

Ratio of Common
Mode Gain to
Differential Mode
Gain is the CMRR

Demonstration: Single-ended v.s. differential mode

sensor interface

Demonstration Circuit 1. Single-ended (grounded)

sensor connection, 1kHz signal plus 10kHz noise.

Rf
Vsignal
VNoise

VOUT

Rf
Rf

VSignal
VNoise
R2
R1

R1
v- _
R2

v+

VOUT

Demonstration Circuit 2. Differential amplifier (neither

signal input grounded), 1kHz signal plus 10kHz noise.
VOUT

Vsignal +

R1
R2

VNoise
Vsignal -

R2
R1

Rf

R1

(VSignal VSignal )

Rf
Note: R2
doesnt
matter

v- _
v+

VOUT

What if single-supply OP amp?

(output cant go below ground)
Use VRef instead of ground for non-inverting input.
Note that new pseudo-ground will be Vref .
R2

R1

V1

V2

+
R1

VOUT
VOUT

R2

G
R1 R2

V2 V1

R1

1 G
R1 R2

VOUT VRe f
R2
VRef

R2
V2 V1
R1

Q: V1 = 1 and V2 = 5, what is VOUT?

Note that the input resistances are not equal.

R1=1K

R3=3K

V1

V2

+
R2=2K

R3=3K

VO

Q: V1 = 1 and V2 = 5, what is VOUT?

Note that the input resistances are not equal.
V1 V V Vo
A: Vout = 9 V
KCL at V
, V
R1

KCL at V

R1=1K

R3=3K

V1

V2

+
R2=2K

R3=3K

R3

V2 V V 0

R2
R3

set V- V 0 , some algebra...

VO
VO

R3
R1

R1 R3

3
5

1
9 Volts
2
1

R2 R3

Improving the input impedance

and gain of the differential
amplifier

3-Op Amp Instrumentation Amplifier. Commonly used for

sensor interfacing, especially biomedical applications.
V1

R4

+
_

R3

R2
R1

R2
_

V2

+
R3
R4

VOUT

Why is it so awesome?
High CMRR, high gain, and high input impedance.

V1

R4

+
_

R3

R2
R1

R2

A sensor that
produces a tiny
voltage, like a
strain gauge or
thermocouple

_
+
V2

+
R3
R4

Q: R2=R3=R4=100K. Specify R1 such that the

instrumentation amplifier below produces a differential
gain of 40 dB.

V1

R4

+
_

R3

R2
R1

R2
_

V2

+
R3
R4

VOUT

Q: R2=R3=R4=100K. Specify R1 such that the

instrumentation amplifier below produces a differential
gain of 40 dB.
'
'
First stage :

A: R1= 2020 ohms

R1 2R2
V1 V2
R1

V1' V2'
V1

R4

+
_

R3

R2
R1

R2
_

V2

+
R3
R4

V1 V2
V V2
1
R1 2R2
R1

Second stage : Vo
R
Vo 4
R3

R1 2R2

R1

R4
V1' V2'
R3

V1 V2

VO
1 R 20K
Want 20 log10 1
R1
1
1 R 20K
or 1
R1
1

40dB

100 R1 202 ohms

Q: What if R2a not the same as R2b ? How does this

affect the differential gain?

V1

R4

+
_

R3

R2a
R1

R2b
_

V2

+
R3
R4

VOUT

Q: What if R2a not the same as R2b ? How does this

affect the differential gain?
A: Doesnt matter!

V1' V2'
V V2
First stage :
1
R 2a R1 R2 b
R1
V1' V2'

R 2a R 2b R1
V1 V2
R1

Second stage : Vo
V1

+
_
R2a

R1

R4
R3

+
R3
V2

R
4

VOUT

R 2a R 2b R1

V1 V2
R1

R3

R2b

Vo

R4
V1' V2'
R3

_
V2

R4

V1

So why do we
set R2a = R2b ?

Q: Why do we set R2a = R2b ?

A: Maximum internal
headroom.
Consider V1 and V2
individually...

V1 V2
R1

V1' V1 iR 2a V1

R 2a
V1 V2
R1

V2' V2 iR 2b V2

R 2b
V1 V2
R1

Suppose V1 1, V2 1
V1

+
_
R2a

R1

V1
i

VO

V1' 1 2 2 5

center at 2 volts
V 1 0 1
R 30K
In both cases, Vo 4
V1 V2
R3 10K
'
2

R3
V2

center at 0 volts
V2' 1 2 3
Unequal : R 2a 20K , R 2b 0, R1 10K

R3

R2b

V1' 1 2 3

_
V2

Balanced case : R 2a R 2b R1 10K

R4

R
4