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RADIATION SAFETY

Introduction

Man and all other forms of life inhabiting on earth have


evolved in an environment enveloped in nuclear radiation.
Thus mankind and radiation are old acquaintances and
have learned to live together without danger to life or
deleterious effects.
Now a days all public attention and apprehension appear to
be focused on nuclear power, which in the last four decades
has only contributed a small increment of man-made
radiation to natural radiation environment.
Incidents and accidents which involve exposure to ionizing
radiation have become matters of great public concern. It
leads fears of cancer epidemics occurring among the
general public as a result of exposures to even very low
levels of radiation.

The aim of this presentation is to remove such fear and


provide certain basic idea about radiation and safety

This report briefly describes the meaning of different terms


such as ionizing radiation, radioactivity, half-life, radiation
dose, different units of radiation dose, external and internal
radiation exposure etc.

This report high light the methods used to control external


and internal exposures and also the biological effects of
radiation

DISCOVERY OF NUCLEAR RADIATION

Roentgen discovered X-rays in 1895 and Henri Becquerel discovered


nuclear radiations in 1896.
Henri Becquerel identified three types of radiations namely alpha (),
beta () and gamma ()
Alpha particles possess 2 units of positive charge and 4 units of
mass. Alpha particles are nothing but helium nuclei, i.e. helium atoms
minus their two orbiting electrons. For example U-238 (an isotope of
uranium with atomic mass of 238) tend to disintegrate spontaneously
by ejecting an alpha particle and transforms itself to Th-234, an
isotope of thorium.
Beta particles were identified as electrons and they carry 1 unit of
negative charge. In beta decay, a neutron in the nucleus is converted
to a proton and an electron and an anti-neutrino are ejected. Electrons
emitted during beta-decay have a continuous distribution of energy
ranging from zero to a maximum energy which is characteristic of a
particular nucleus. The most probable electron energy is
approximately one-third of the maximum energy. The neutrino is
unimportant in radiation protection because of its extremely weak
interaction with matter. For example tritium ( 3H) decays to helium
(3He) by emitting an electron (e-) and an anti-neutrino (V-).

Gamma radiations are electromagnetic radiations like sunlight or


radio waves, but of much shorter wavelengths.
Each gamma ray may be thought of as a packet of energy. These
packets behave much as particles do and are given the special
name photons.
Gamma rays have no mass or charge. In many cases, after
emission of an alpha particle or a beta particle, the nucleus is in
excited state and it may re-arrange itself. In this process it may
release energy in the form of a gamma-ray.
X-rays are identical to gamma rays except for their origin. The
former originate from outside the nucleus, the latter from within.
The energy of radiation is expressed in a unit called electron volt
(eV). 1ev=1.6 x 10-19 joules.
Alpha and beta particles have energized of several million
electron volts (MeV).
Gamma ray energies range from several kilo electron volts (k eV)
up to many MeV.

Radioactivity and Radiation


Radioactivity and Radiation :
An unstable nuclide transforms spontaneously into
the nuclide of another element, and in doing so, emits radiation. This
property is called radioactivity, the transformation is termed decay,
and the nuclide is said to be a radio-nuclide.
for example, Carbon-14 is an unstable nuclide, which decays to
nitrogen-14, a stable nuclide.
Activity and half-life:
The quantity of radio-nuclide is described by its activity
which is the rate at which spontaneous decay occurs in it. The activity
is expressed in a unit called Becquerel (Bq) named after the scientist
who discovered nuclear radiation.
The time taken for the activity of a radionuclide to loose half its value
by decay is called the half-life.
For example the half-life of carbon-14 is 5730 years and for Pu-239 is
24,131 years

Ionizing and non-ionizing radiation


Ionizing radiation :
when radiation interacts with matter produces a
positive and negative ion and hence the name
ionizing radiation.
* Radiations such as alpha, beta, gamma and x-ray
come under ionizing type of radiation
Non-ionizing radiation:
When radiation interacts with matter do not
have such ability to produce ions and hence the name
non-ionizing radiation.
* Heat, light and UV radiation come under nonionizing type of radiation.

RADIATION UNIT

The charges created by ionization can serve as good index


of the radiation exposure received by the object, the
energy expended in producing those charges is used as a
measure of radiation dose or exposure.
Exposure is a quantity expressing the amount of ionization
caused in air by X or gamma radiation.
The standard unit of radiation-absorbed dose is Gray
(usually abbreviated as Gy) that corresponds to an average
energy deposition of one Joule per kilogram of the object.
1Gy=1000 mGy
1Gy=100rad (radiation absorbed dose)
Sievert is a new unit.
1 Sv = 100 rem (roentgen equivalent man)

Irradiation, External Radiation,


Contamination
Irradiation:
Irradiation is a general term used to describe
exposure to radiation originating from any source.
External Radiation:
External radiation indicates the exposure is
due to X or gamma radiation originating from an external
source. The implication here is that there is no direct
contact between the radiation source and the recipient of
the exposure.
Contamination:
Contamination results when radioactive
material is deposited externally on the skin or internally.

Control of internal radiation


exposure
Internal exposure is due to presence of radioactive material present in the
body. Internal radiation exposure occur through (1) inhalation through air (2)
ingestion through food and water and (3) absorption through wound.
To prevent the internal radiation exposure, air borne radioactivity is
continually measured to know the levels of air activity in the laboratory.
To prevent the radioactivity entering the body through food due to the
contamination of hands the workers monitor their hands for any
contamination in the hand monitor.
To avoid any direct entry of radioactive material through wound the workers
are not allowed to carryout the radioactive work if they have any open
wound.
Generally workers will be wearing gloves and laboratory coat to prevent the
contamination of hands and personal clothing.

Control of external radiation


exposure
External radiation exposure can be controlled by three ways
(1) Reducing the time of work
(2) Increasing the distance between the radioactive
source and the
person and
(3) Providing a shielding material between the radioactive
source and the person.
Alpha radiation even a thin sheet of paper will stop alpha
radiation as these are comparatively heavy particle.
Beta radiation can be stopped by Perspex or by using low
atomic number material like aluminum.
Gamma radiation is highly penetrating and hence it requires
high atomic number material such as lead for shielding to
reduce the radiation level.

chromosomal aberration
technique
chromosomal aberration technique:
This technique can be used when the exposure is of
the order of 100 mSv and above.
To carryout this assay about 0.5 ml blood sample is
collected from the exposed individual and the
sample is cultured to get metaphase chromosomes.
These metaphase chromosomes are screened
under microscope for scoring di-centric
chromosomes.
From the frequency of di-centric chromosomes the
radiation dose is estimated.

Permissible Radiation Dose


The maximum permissible whole body effective dose
limit is 100 mrem (1 mSv) in a year.
The average dose over a defined period of 5 years
does not exceed 100 mrem (1 mSv) per year.
For Occupational exposure, the maximum
permissible level of exposures is2 rem (20 mSv) for
whole body in a year, averaged over 5 years ( 100
mSv in 5 years), with the provision that the effective
dose should not exceed 30 m Sv (AERB
recommendation) in any single year.
For lens of eye 15 rem (150 mSv) in a year
For skin 50 rem (500 mSv) in a year

Effects of radiation
Effects of doses received by homogeneous irradiation of
the whole body
From 0 to 250 m Gy: no biological or medical effect,
immediate or long-term, has been observed in children or
adults. This is the domain of low doses.
From 250 to 1000 m Gy: some nausea may appear along
with a slight decrease in the number of white blood cells.
From 1000 to 2500 mGy: vomiting, change in the blood
count, but satisfactory recovery or complete cure assured.
From 2500 to 5000 mGy: consequences on health
become serious; hospitalization is mandatory; a dose of
5,000 mSv received all at once is lethal for one out of two
people.
More than 5000 mGy: death is almost certain.

Conclusion
Conclusion:
Good and bad are seen in all forms of radiation. For
example we have been exposed to radiation from the sun.
We are looking upon sunlight as some thing good and
useful. We cannot live without sun. Yet sunlight has it
dangers too. We take precautions against sunburn and
sunstroke. Similarly we have been living with nuclear
radiation for long time. These radiations can be measured
easily to levels far below those of interest to health.
Radiation dose to the public from Nuclear power plants is
trivial. Risks from radiations are well understood compared
with many other hazards. Thus it may be concluded that we
respect radiation and do not have fear of radiation.

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