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TOPIC 2 :

RAINFALL DATA ANALYSIS


By : Halina Binti Hamid

TYPES OF PRECIPITATION

Precipitation can be divided into two


categories which are :
Liquid - Rain, Drizzle
Frozen Snow, Glaze, Sleet, Hail

Rain & Drizzle


Rain is the major form of precipitation in the form of
water drops of sizes greater than 0.5 mm. The maximum
sizes of rain drop is about 6 mm. based on its intensity,
rainfall is classified as light rain (> 2.5 mm/hr), moderate
rain (2.5 7.5 mm/hr) and heavy rain (<7.5 mm/hr)
Rain mostly occurs in nimbostratus clouds and
cumulonimbus
clouds. These clouds are capable of producing
cloudbursts.
Most rain starts as snow or ice crystals; as the snow
falls through
the cloud it melts.
Drizzle is a fine uniform water droplet with a
diameter less than 0.5 mm.

Temperature Profile for Rain

Snow
Snow is precipitation in the form of ice crystals
(snowflakes) or
more often, aggregates if ice crystals. These ice crystals
often combine themselves to form snow flakes. Their sizes
may vary from a few millimeters to several centimeters.
The size and structure of
the crystals is a function of the temperature at which they
form.
When air temperatures are cold the moisture content is
very
small. This results in the formation of very light fluffy
snow
made up of six sided ice crystals.
When conditions are warmer,
the ice crystals join together into
larger clumps consisting
interlocked aggregates of crystals.

Temperature Profile for Snow

Sleet and Glaze


Sleet is a wintertime phenomenon that refers to the fall of small
particles of ice that are clear to translucent.
Sleet forms when rain
passes through a cold
layer of air and freezes
into ice pellets. This
occurs most often in
the winter when warm
air is forced over a layer
of cold air.
Glaze is forms on
the ground as an ice
coating when rains
or drizzles come in
contact with the
cold ground at
ground 0C.

Temperature Profile for Sleet and Glaze

Hail
Hail is precipitation in the form of hard, rounded pellets or
irregular lumps of ice. The layers of ice accumulate as the
hailstone travels up and down in a strong convective cloud.

Hailstones begin as small


ice pellets that grow by
adding
super cooled water
droplets as
they move through the
cloud. As the ice crystal
cycles up and down in the
cloud the hailstones
increase in size until they
are forced out by a
downdraft or become heavy
enough to fall out.

Hail

This large hailstone fell from a tornadic supercell northeast of Breckenridge,


TX. The stones left a path miles wide littered with three to four and one half
inch stones. The hail fell from a dark cloud base to the south of a developing
mesocyclone. No rain or thunder occurred in the immediate area while the
stones were coming down.

Precipitation Measurements

Standard Instruments:

Simple rain gauge, standard rain gauge, tipping bucket gauge,


weighing gauge

CHARACTERISTICS OF RAINFALL

Depth (inches , mm)


A measurement of the amount of rain which has fallen (mm)

Duration(hours)
Length of time over which rainfall (storm event) occurs

Intensity (inches per hour , mm per hour)


The rate at which rain falls, usually measured in millimeters per

hour. Intense rainfall is associated with convectional rain,


notably in thunderstorms and tropical regions, where intensity
may be over 100mm per hour. The intensity of rainfall is
normally inversely proportional to its duration.

Rain Frequency
The number of times, during a specified period of years, that

precipitation of a certain magnitude or greater occurs or will


occur at a station; numerically, the reciprocal of the frequency
is usually given.

RAIN INTENSITY

Rainfall intensity varies widely in time


and space.
High intensity storms are usually of
short duration and cover relatively
small areas.
Low-intensity storms are typically of
longer duration and cover larger
areas.

Calculate Rain Intensity

If the drainage area is 10 km2 to 1000 km2 (or 1 107 m2 to


1 109 m2), then the rainfall intensity I = FA I, where FA =
areal reduction factor. Areal reduction factor is provided in
Table 13.1 (MSMAM) or Figure 13.1 (MSMAM) as shown
below.

Figure 13.1 Graphical Areal Reduction Factor

Example :
If the 0.75 hour rainfall intensity computed for a
30 km2 catchment area based on polynomial
equation is I = 250 mm/hr, based on Figure
13.1 determine the rainfall depth. Account for the
variability in rainfall.
2
3
ln R I t a b ln t c ln t d ln t
Polynomial equation:

where,

and

I = intensity (mm/hr)
t = duration (minutes)
a, b, c and d = coefficients based on ARI
location

0.9

2 hours
line

30 km2

Since the catchment area A = 30 km2 > 10 km2, then the areal
reduction factor is required.

Therefore, the rainfall intensity


I = 0.9 250 mm/hr
I = 225 mm/hr
The rainfall depth
P = 225 0.75
P = 168.75 mm

P=It

I = FA I

Design Rainfall Hyetograph

A rainfall hyetograph is a graphical representation


of the variation of rainfall depth or intensity with
time. Rainfall-runoff hydrograph methods require
a description of this variation.

The temporal patterns of the west coast and east


coast of Peninsular Malaysia are provided in Table
13.B1 and Table 13.B2 of MSMAM.

Example:
Using the rainfall depth from previous question, obtain the design
hyetograph for 30 minute duration. Assume an area of West Coast
Malaysia.
Based on Table 13.B1, the temporal depth for 30 minute duration is

Based on the rainfall depths, the


design rainfall hyetograph of depth
is:

or

Based on the rainfall intensity,


the design rainfall hyetograph
of intensity is:

AREAL AVERAGE RAINFALL


Representing Water Amounts

At a point it is most convenient to represent


amounts of water, such as precipitation, runoff,
evaporation, or groundwater recharge, as a depth.

Depth, e.g. mm of rainfall, can be thought of as a


measure of volume per unit area.

Need for Areal Averaging

When we want to estimate runoff or compare


stream flow amounts to rainfall amounts, it
becomes necessary to get an area average based
on point measurements.

There are numerous methods to estimate areal


average rainfall.

Areal Averaging Methods

Arithmetic average
Theissen polygon method
Isohyetal method

Arithmetic Average Method

Simply take the average of all the station values in


the study area. This method works well only if the
stations are evenly distributed over the study area.

Example :

P = (0.55 + 0.87 + 2.33 + 5.40 + 1.89 ) / 5


= 2.21

Theissen Polygon Method

This method weights the contribution of each station based


on the area it represents. The areal average is obtained
using a area-weighted average of the station values.

Example :
Step 1 :
Construct polygons by
connecting stations with
lines

Step 2 :
Perpendicular bisectors
for each of the sides of
the triangle are drawn.
These bisectors form a
polygon around each
station

Step 3 :

Estimate the area of each


stations polygon by
counting grid squares or
other suitable technique
for the polygons formed
by the bisect lines.
In this case the area is
15.0, 33.0, 28.8, 16.4 and
24.3 units for A, B, C, D
and E respectively

Step 4 :

Using the table, total the area


(A).
In this case, A = 117.5 units

Step 5 :

Determine the station weights


by dividing the station area by
the total are. ( Ai / A)
In this case, W1 = 0.128,
W2 = 0.281, W3 = 0.245,
W4 = 0.140 and W5 = 0.207

Statio
n

Rainfall
,P

P1

A1

A1/A

P2

A2

A2/A

P3

A3

A3/A

P4

A4

A4/A

P5

A5

A5/A

Total

Area Weightag
eW

Step 6 :

Calculate the average rainfall


over the catchment P is given by :
P = P1W1 + P2W2 + + P5W5

In this case, P = 2.03

Problem Based 1 :
Calculate the
average
precipitation over
the catchment by
the Thiessen
Polygons methods

Isohyetal Method

This method develops areal weights based on the rainfall


pattern. The areal average is obtained using a area-weighted
average of the isohyetal zones.

Example :
1. Draw lines of equal
precipitation.
2. Estimate
precipitation in each
grid area within
basin
3. Total the values in
each grid area
4. Divide areas to
obtain a basin areal
estimate of
precipitation
5. Areal estimate is
1.90 in this case

Isohytes

Average
value of
P

Area

Fraction of
total area
(col. 3 / Total
area, A)

Weighted P
(col. 2 x col.
4)

TOTAL

Problem Based 2 :
Calculate the
average
precipitation over
the catchment by
the Isohyetal
methods

Estimation of Missing Data

Incomplete records of rainfall are


sometimes possible due to operator
error or equipment malfunction.
In the case, it is often necessary to
estimate the missing record.
There are two methods of correction:
Arithmetic Method
Normal Ratio Method
Quadrant Method

Normal Ratio Method


Normal ratio method Get observed rainfall at surrounding stations
These are weighted by the ratio of the normal
annual rainfall at station X and normal annual
rainfall at that station.
Px

i 1

Nx

Pi
Ni

wherePx=estimationofpptatstationx,Pi=pptatNx=normalppt
atstationXandNiispptattheithsurroundingstation.

Example :

The normal annual rainfall at stations A,B,C, and


D in a basin are 80.97, 67.59, 76.28 and 92.01 cm
respectively. In the year 1975, the station D was
inoperative and the station A,B and C recorded
annual precipitations of 91.11, 72.23 and 79.89
cm respectively. Estimate the rainfall at station D
in that year.

Solution :
As the normal rainfall values vary more than 10%
the normal ratio method is adopted. Using the
equation :
P
PX
1 P1
P

2 ..... n
NX
n N1
N2
Nn

PD

92.01 91.11 72.23 79.89

3 80.79 67.59 76.28

= 99.48 cm

Quadrant Methods

Four quadrants are delineated by north-south and eastwest lines passing through raingauge station where the
missing rainfall is to be estimated.
One raingauge station in each quadrant, which is the
nearest to the raingauge station under question in that
quadrat , is selected.
The weight applicable to each of these four station is
computed as the reciprocal of the square of the distance
between this station and the origin of the quadrants.
Then the rainfalls recorded at the four stations in the four
quadrants are multiplied by their respective weights and
added.
The resulting sum is divided by the sum of the weights to
yield the missing rainfall.

Where Px, is the missing rainfall at station X. P1, P2,


P3 and P4 are the rainfalls recorded at the raingauge
stations in the four quadrants which are nearest to
station X in the respective quadrants, and which are
at distances of r1, r2, r3 and r4 from station X
respectively.

Example :

Station X failed to report the rainfall recorded during a


storm. With respect to east-west and north-south axes
set up at station X, the coordinates of 4 surrounding
gauges, which are the nearest to station X in the
respective quadrants, are (10,15), (-8,5), (-12,-9) and
(5,-15) km respectively. Determine the missing rainfall
at X, if the storm rainfalls at the four surrounding
gauges are 73, 89, 68 and 57 mm respectively

Solution :

Test For Consistency of Record

Some of the common causes for


inconsistency of record include :
Shifting of raingauge station to a new

location
The neighborhood of the station
undergoing a marked change.

Double Mass Curve

This technique is based on the principle that


when each recorded data comes from the
same parent population, they are consistent.
A group of n (usually 5 to 10) base stations in the

neighborhood of the problem station X is selected.


Annual (or monthly mean) rainfall data of station X
and also the average rainfall of the group of base
stations covering a long period is arranged in the
reverse chronological order (i.e. the latest record as
the first entry and the oldest record as the first entry
and the oldest record as the last entry in the list).

Example :

The annual rainfall at station X, and the average


of annual at 25 surrounding base stations in cm
are given below for a period of 36 years starting
from 1941.
Check whether the data of station X is consistent.
ii. In which year a charge in regime indicated ?
iii. Compute the mean annual rainfall for station X at its
present site for given 36 year period first without
adjustment and secondly with the data adjusted for the
change in regime.
iv. Compute the adjusted annual rainfalls at station X for the
affected period.
i.

Solution :

i.

ii.

iii.

As the double mass curve is not having a


uniform slope, it can be concluded that the
record at station X is not consistent.
Since there is a break in the slope of the double
mass curve in the year 1953, it may be said that
the data at station X prior to 1953 is
inconsistent and needs adjustment.
From Col. (3), the total of 36 year rainfall at
station X without adjustment = 3953 cm
so,
The man annual rainfall at X without adjustment
= 3953
= 109.8 cm
36

From the graph of double mass curve, the cumulative


rainfall at station X for 36 years after correction =
3480 cm.
So,
The mean annual rainfall at X after adjustment
= 3480
= 96.7 cm
36
iv) The slope of the adjusted mass curve for the
affected period of 1941 to 1953, that is the slope of
the line CB = 0.85. The slope of the unadjusted mass
curve, that is the slope of the line CB = 1.17
Therefore the correction factor for adjustment
= 0.85
= 0.7265
1.17

The adjusted annual rainfalls at station X for the


period 1941 to 1952 are given below.

Problem Based 3 :
The annual
precipitation at
station Z and the
average annual
precipitation at 10
neighboring stations
are as follows:

Estimate the missing


precipitation data at
station Y.

Year

Precipitatio
n at Z (mm)

1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987

35
37
39
35
30
25
20
24
30
31
35
38
40
28
25
21

10 station
Average
(mm)
28
29
31
27
25
21
17
21
26
31
36
39
44
32
30
23

The End

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